Power-sharing Class 10: Notes, Key Ideas and Board Answers

What Power-sharing is about

Weightage: Political Science carries 20 of the 80 theory marks; this chapter shares them with Federalism, Gender, Religion and Caste, Political Parties and Outcomes of Democracy.Source: CBSE Social Science syllabus 2026-27, Political Science

In real board papers: asked in 21 of the 21 board papers we hold (2023 to 2026), on average 4.5 marks per paper. See the questions

Key concepts

Belgium's complex ethnic composition

NCERT section Belgium and Sri Lanka

Belgium is a small European country, smaller than Haryana in area, with a little over one crore people. It borders France, the Netherlands, Germany and Luxembourg. Its people are split by language: 59 per cent live in the Flemish region and speak Dutch, 40 per cent live in Wallonia and speak French, and 1 per cent speak German.

The trouble was not just numbers. The French-speaking minority was richer and more powerful, while Dutch speakers got the benefits of economic development and education later. The Dutch speakers resented this, and tensions rose in the 1950s and 1960s.

Brussels made it harder. In the capital, 80 per cent speak French and only 20 per cent Dutch. So the group that was a majority in the country was a minority in the capital. The danger was clear: the Dutch majority could force its will on others, and a messy partition could follow, with both sides claiming Brussels.

Worked example

(2 marks) Why did Brussels present a special problem for Belgium's communities?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Dutch speakers formed the majority in the country as a whole (59 per cent) - ½ mark.
2. In Brussels only 20 per cent spoke Dutch while 80 per cent spoke French - ½ mark.
3. So the national majority became a minority in the capital, which made tension sharpest in Brussels and meant both sides would claim it in any division - 1 mark.

Answer: Dutch speakers were the majority in Belgium, but in Brussels 80 per cent spoke French and only 20 per cent Dutch. The national majority was a minority in the capital, so tension was most acute there and both sides would claim Brussels if the country split.

Sri Lanka's diverse population

NCERT section Belgium and Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is an island nation a few kilometres off the southern coast of Tamil Nadu, with about two crore people. Like other South Asian countries, its population is diverse.

The two major groups are Sinhala speakers (74 per cent) and Tamil speakers (18 per cent). Tamils are of two kinds. Sri Lankan Tamils (13 per cent) are natives of the country and are concentrated in the north and east. Indian Tamils are those whose forefathers came from India as plantation workers in the colonial period.

Religion overlaps with language. Most Sinhala speakers are Buddhists, while most Tamils are Hindus or Muslims. About 7 per cent are Christians, and they are both Tamil and Sinhala.

Why does this matter? The Sinhala majority in Sri Lanka was even bigger than the Dutch majority in Belgium, so it could impose its will on the whole country if it chose. The fact that Sri Lankan Tamils lived together in one region also explains why their later demands were for regional autonomy.

Worked example

(1 mark) Which of the following statements about the people of Sri Lanka is correct?
(a) Sri Lankan Tamils form 74 per cent of the population and live mainly in the south.
(b) Indian Tamils are those whose forefathers came from India as plantation workers during the colonial period.
(c) Most Tamils in Sri Lanka are Buddhists.
(d) Christians in Sri Lanka are only Tamil speakers.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Sinhala speakers, not Tamils, are 74 per cent, and Sri Lankan Tamils live in the north and east, so (a) is wrong.
2. Most Buddhists are Sinhala speakers; most Tamils are Hindus or Muslims, so (c) is wrong.
3. Christians are both Tamil and Sinhala, so (d) is wrong; (b) matches the NCERT description - 1 mark.

Answer: (b) Indian Tamils are those whose forefathers came from India as plantation workers during the colonial period.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

NCERT section Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

Majoritarianism is the belief that the majority community should be able to rule a country any way it wants, ignoring the wishes and needs of the minority.

After independence in 1948, Sinhala leaders used their majority to secure dominance over government. The elected government took a series of steps: a 1956 Act made Sinhala the only official language, ignoring Tamil; preferential policies favoured Sinhala applicants for university places and government jobs; and a new constitution said the state would protect and foster Buddhism.

Because these measures came one after another, Sri Lankan Tamils felt increasingly alienated. They felt no major party led by Buddhist Sinhala leaders cared about their language and culture, and that they were denied equal political rights and fair chances in jobs.

Tamils launched parties and struggles for Tamil as an official language, regional autonomy and equal opportunity. Their demand for autonomy was repeatedly denied. By the 1980s groups demanded an independent Tamil Eelam in the north and east. Distrust became a civil war, which ended in 2009 after thousands died and many became refugees.

Worked example

(5 marks) "Majoritarian measures did not make Sri Lanka stronger; they weakened its unity." Explain this statement by tracing the chain from government policies to civil war.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Language: the 1956 Act recognised Sinhala as the only official language, disregarding Tamil - 1 mark.
2. Jobs and education: preferential policies favoured Sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs - 1 mark.
3. Religion: the new constitution said the state shall protect and foster Buddhism - 1 mark.
4. Effect: Sri Lankan Tamils felt alienated and denied equal rights; their demands for Tamil as official language and regional autonomy were repeatedly denied - 1 mark.
5. Result: by the 1980s groups demanded Tamil Eelam; distrust turned into civil war, killing thousands, creating refugees and setting back social, cultural and economic life - 1 mark.

Answer: - The 1956 Act made Sinhala the only official language, ignoring Tamil.
- Preferential policies favoured Sinhala applicants for university places and government jobs.
- The new constitution required the state to protect and foster Buddhism.
- These measures, one after another, made Sri Lankan Tamils feel alienated and denied equal rights. Their demands for Tamil as an official language and for regional autonomy were repeatedly refused.
- By the 1980s, organisations demanded an independent Tamil Eelam in the north and east. Distrust turned into a civil war that killed thousands, forced families to flee as refugees and set back the country's social, cultural and economic life. So majoritarianism undermined unity.

Accommodation in Belgium: the Belgian model

NCERT section Accommodation in Belgium

Belgian leaders chose a different path. They accepted that regional and cultural differences were real. Between 1970 and 1993 they amended their constitution four times to build an arrangement that let everyone live together in one country.

The main features are:

• Equal numbers of Dutch and French-speaking ministers in the central government, and some special laws need a majority from each language group. So no community can decide alone.
• Many central powers were given to the State Governments of the two regions, and these are not subordinate to the Centre.
• Brussels has a separate government with equal representation of both communities. French speakers accepted equality in Brussels because Dutch speakers accepted equality at the Centre. Each side gave up something where it was the majority.
• A community government, elected by people of one language community wherever they live, handles cultural, educational and language issues.

The model is complicated, but it avoided civic strife and a split on language lines. Brussels was chosen as headquarters of the European Union.

Worked example

(1 mark) Read the statements and choose the correct option.
Assertion (A): The French-speaking people accepted equal representation of both communities in the separate government of Brussels.
Reason (R): The Dutch-speaking community had accepted equal representation in the Central Government.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. A is true: Brussels has a separate government with equal representation, even though French speakers are the majority there.
2. R is true: the Constitution makes Dutch and French-speaking ministers equal at the Centre, though Dutch speakers are the national majority.
3. R explains A: it was a give-and-take; French speakers accepted equality where they were the majority because Dutch speakers did the same at the Centre - 1 mark.

Answer: (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

Lessons from Belgium and Sri Lanka, and India compared

NCERT section Accommodation in Belgium

Both Belgium and Sri Lanka are democracies with deep language divisions, yet they handled power sharing in opposite ways.

Belgium's leaders understood that a country stays united only when every community and region feels its interests and feelings are respected. This led to arrangements every group could accept. Sri Lanka shows the reverse: when a majority forces its dominance and refuses to share power, it can undermine the unity of the country.

A useful contrast is federal division. In Belgium the constitution clearly laid down powers for different levels of government; in Sri Lanka the Tamil demand for more autonomy to their provinces was refused.

India follows the sharing path. Its constitution sets out the powers of the Union and State Governments, and power also goes down to municipalities and panchayats. Reserved constituencies in assemblies and Parliament give socially weaker sections a share. Power is divided among legislature, executive and judiciary, and parties compete for power. Unlike Belgium, India does not fix ministers by community, but like Belgium it shares power instead of letting one group rule alone.

Worked example

(3 marks) "In its approach to power sharing, India is closer to Belgium than to Sri Lanka." Support this statement with three arguments.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Federal division: India's constitution lays down the powers of Union and State Governments, as Belgium did, while Sri Lanka refused autonomy to Tamil provinces - 1 mark.
2. Social groups: reserved constituencies give socially weaker sections a share in legislatures, similar in spirit to Belgium's community government, unlike Sri Lanka's preferential policies for the majority - 1 mark.
3. Further levels: India extends power to municipalities and panchayats and divides it among legislature, executive and judiciary, so no single group or organ dominates - 1 mark.

Answer: - India's constitution clearly divides powers between Union and State Governments, as Belgium did; Sri Lanka refused Tamil demands for provincial autonomy.
- Reserved constituencies give weaker sections a fair share, like Belgium's accommodation, unlike Sri Lanka's majority-favouring policies.
- Power also reaches panchayats and municipalities, so no single group rules alone.

Why power sharing is desirable: prudential and moral reasons

NCERT section Why power sharing is desirable?

The chapter gives two sets of reasons.

Prudential reasons are based on careful calculation of gains and losses. Power sharing makes clashes between social groups less likely. Such clashes tend to turn violent and make politics unstable, so sharing power keeps the political order steady. Imposing the majority's will may look attractive in the short run, but in the long run it undermines national unity. Sri Lanka proves this. Tyranny of the majority harms the minority and often the majority too.

Moral reasons go deeper. Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy. Those affected by the exercise of power, and who must live with its effects, should share in it. People have a right to be consulted on how they are governed. A legitimate government is one where citizens, by participating, gain a stake in the system.

The key difference: prudential reasons value power sharing because it brings better outcomes; moral reasons value the act of sharing itself, whatever the outcome.

Worked example

(2 marks) Suppose a town council plans to let neighbourhood committees decide on local water schemes. Member X says: "Residents have a right to be consulted on decisions that shape their lives." Member Y says: "If every neighbourhood has a say, quarrels between neighbourhoods will reduce." Classify each argument as prudential or moral, with a reason.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. X is a moral reason: it values consultation as a right, the spirit of democracy, not because of any result - 1 mark.
2. Y is a prudential reason: it values sharing because it brings a better outcome, less conflict between groups - 1 mark.

Answer: X gives a moral reason: people have a right to be consulted, so sharing power is valuable in itself. Y gives a prudential reason: sharing is useful because it reduces conflict between groups and brings better outcomes.

From undivided power to horizontal and vertical sharing

NCERT section Forms of power-sharing

For a long time people believed all power must sit with one person or group in one place, because dispersed power would make quick decisions impossible. Democracy changed this. Its basic principle is that people are the source of all political power, and they rule themselves through self-government. Diverse groups and views deserve respect, so power should be spread among as many citizens as possible.

The first form is horizontal distribution: power is shared among organs at the same level, the legislature, executive and judiciary. Each checks the others, so none has unlimited power. Ministers are responsible to Parliament or State Assemblies; judges are appointed by the executive yet can check the executive and laws made by legislatures. This is the system of checks and balances.

The second form is sharing among governments at different levels: a federal government for the whole country (the Union Government in India) and provincial governments (State Governments in India). Belgium did this; Sri Lanka refused it. Extended to municipalities and panchayats, it is called vertical division of power.

Worked example

(3 marks) Distinguish between horizontal and vertical distribution of power, giving one Indian example of each.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Horizontal: power shared among organs at the same level (legislature, executive, judiciary); vertical: power shared among higher and lower levels of government - 1 mark.
2. Horizontal works through checks and balances so no organ has unlimited power; vertical works through a constitution that lays down the powers of each level - 1 mark.
3. Examples: judges can check laws made by legislatures (horizontal); powers divided among Union, State, and panchayats or municipalities (vertical) - 1 mark.

Answer: Horizontal distribution shares power among organs at the same level, the legislature, executive and judiciary, which check one another. For example, courts can check laws made by legislatures. Vertical division shares power among levels of government, as the Constitution divides powers among Union, State and local governments like panchayats.

Sharing among social groups, parties and pressure groups

NCERT section Forms of power-sharing

The third form shares power among social groups, such as religious and linguistic groups. Belgium's community government is a clear example. Some countries have constitutional and legal arrangements so that socially weaker sections and women are represented in legislatures and administration. India's reserved constituencies are one such arrangement. The aim is to give diverse groups space in government so that they do not feel alienated, and to give minorities a fair share in power.

The fourth form is seen in how political parties, pressure groups and movements control or influence those in power. Citizens must be free to choose among contenders, which in modern democracies means competition among parties. This competition ensures power does not stay in one hand; over time it is shared among parties representing different ideologies and social groups. Sharing becomes direct when parties form an alliance and, if elected, a coalition government. Interest groups of traders, businessmen, industrialists, farmers and industrial workers also share power through government committees or by influencing decisions.

Worked example

(3 marks) Imagine two rival parties form an alliance before an election and, after winning, run the government together. In the same country, a farmers' association is given seats on a government committee that advises on crop policy. Identify the form of power sharing in each case and explain how power is shared.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Both cases belong to the same form: power shared through political parties, pressure groups and movements - 1 mark.
2. Alliance case: parties share power directly by forming a coalition government after the alliance wins - 1 mark.
3. Farmers' case: an interest group shares governmental power by participating in a government committee and influencing decisions - 1 mark.

Answer: Both show the form in which power is shared through parties, pressure groups and movements. The rival parties share power directly by running a coalition government. The farmers' association, an interest group, shares power by sitting on a government committee and influencing decision-making.

Power-sharing in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• Belgium and Sri Lanka: Power-sharing Challenges
• Majoritarianism in Sri LankaComing soon
• Accommodation in BelgiumComing soon
• Why Power-sharing Is Desirable
• Forms of Power-sharing

Power-sharing: key facts

Belgium's language groups

Dutch 59 per cent (Flemish region), French 40 per cent (Wallonia), German 1 per cent

Use in MCQs and when explaining why the Dutch majority could dominate.

Brussels

80 per cent French-speaking, 20 per cent Dutch-speaking

Use to show the national majority was a minority in the capital.

Sri Lanka's main groups

Sinhala speakers 74 per cent, Tamil speakers 18 per cent (Sri Lankan Tamils 13 per cent)

Quote when contrasting the bigger Sinhala majority with Belgium's.

Indian Tamils

Tamils whose forefathers came from India as plantation workers in the colonial period

Do not confuse with Sri Lankan Tamils, who are natives, in the north and east.

1948

Sri Lanka became independent

Start point of the majoritarian timeline.

1956

Act made Sinhala the only official language

First measure to name in any alienation answer.

1970 to 1993

Belgium amended its constitution four times

Use as the opening line of a Belgian model answer.

By the 1980s and 2009

Demand for independent Tamil Eelam; civil war ended in 2009

Use to close the Sri Lanka chain of cause and effect.

Ethnic

A social division based on shared culture and belief in common descent

Ethnic groups need not share religion or nationality.

Majoritarianism

Majority rules as it wants, ignoring the minority's wishes and needs

Key term for Sri Lanka answers.

Community government

Elected by one language community wherever they live; handles culture, education, language

Example of power shared among social groups.

Prudential reason

Power sharing reduces conflict and ensures stability (better outcomes)

Pick this for any argument about results, peace or stability.

Moral reason

Power sharing is the spirit of democracy; people have a right to be consulted

Pick this for any argument about rights, legitimacy or participation.

Horizontal distribution

Power shared among legislature, executive and judiciary; checks and balances

Match with separation of powers.

Vertical division

Power shared among levels: Union, State, municipality, panchayat

Match with federal government.

Coalition government

Two or more parties that contested as an alliance share power after winning

Match with power shared by political parties.

How the board asks Power-sharing

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember Power-sharing

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• 59-40-1 and 80-20

  Belgium is 59-40-1 (Dutch-French-German); Brussels flips it to 80-20 in favour of French.

  Use it when: Answering any MCQ or 2-mark question on Belgium's composition.

• Sri Lanka timeline: 48-56-80s-09

  Freedom 1948, Sinhala-only Act 1956, Eelam demand by the 1980s, civil war ends 2009.

  Use it when: Writing the alienation and civil war chain in the right order.

• Three measures: L-J-B

  Language (Sinhala only), Jobs (preferential policies), Buddhism (state to protect and foster it).

  Use it when: The three points of a 3-mark alienation answer.

• Belgian model: E-S-B-C

  Equal ministers, State powers, Brussels government, Community government.

  Use it when: Listing the four features of the Belgian model in a 5-mark answer.

• Four forms: O-L-G-P

  Organs, Levels, Groups, Parties. Match: separation of powers, federal, community government, coalition.

  Use it when: Match-the-following and 5-mark forms questions.

• Prudent or principled?

  Prudential talks about results (peace, stability). Moral talks about rights (consultation, legitimacy).

  Use it when: Classifying any argument in a passage or MCQ.

Power-sharing: board-level solved questions

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section E style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In the board paper this is a 4-mark question split into 1 + 1 + 2 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in Power-sharing

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Reversing the majority in Belgium

  Students remember French speakers were rich and powerful and assume they were the majority.

  Wrong working

  In Belgium, the French-speaking majority dominated the Dutch minority.

  Right working

  Dutch speakers were the majority (59 per cent) but the French-speaking minority was richer and more powerful. Only in Brussels were French speakers the majority.

  ✓Do this: Separate three things: national numbers, wealth, and Brussels numbers.

  Usually costs: The full mark in an MCQ or assertion-reason, and ½ to 1 mark in a short answer.

• ✗Mistake: Mixing up prudential and moral reasons

  Both are reasons in favour, so students swap the labels.

  Wrong working

  Moral reason: power sharing reduces conflict between social groups.

  Right working

  Prudential reason: power sharing reduces conflict and keeps political order stable. Moral reason: power sharing is the spirit of democracy; people have a right to be consulted.

  ✓Do this: Ask whether the point is about outcomes (prudential) or about rights (moral).

  Usually costs: 1 mark per wrongly labelled reason.

• ✗Mistake: Calling federal division horizontal

  Students learn the words but not what is at the same level.

  Wrong working

  Horizontal distribution means power shared between Union and State Governments.

  Right working

  Horizontal distribution is among organs at the same level: legislature, executive, judiciary. Sharing among Union, State and local governments is vertical division.

  ✓Do this: Picture a row (organs side by side) for horizontal and a ladder (levels) for vertical.

  Usually costs: 1 to 2 marks in a forms question.

• ✗Mistake: Describing community government as regional

  Belgium also has State Governments of regions, so students merge the two.

  Wrong working

  Community government is elected by people living in a particular region.

  Right working

  Community government is elected by people of one language community (Dutch, French or German-speaking) no matter where they live, and deals with cultural, educational and language issues.

  ✓Do this: Remember the phrase 'no matter where they live'.

  Usually costs: 1 mark in a Belgian model answer.

• ✗Mistake: Listing features instead of comparing

  Students write a Belgium paragraph and a Sri Lanka paragraph with no links.

  Wrong working

  Belgium amended its constitution. Belgium has community government. Sri Lanka passed an Act in 1956. There was civil war.

  Right working

  Belgium recognised diversity and shared power, while Sri Lanka followed majoritarian policies. Belgium gave powers to State Governments, while Sri Lanka denied Tamil autonomy. Belgium avoided a split; Sri Lanka suffered civil war.

  ✓Do this: Use 'while' or 'whereas' in every point and compare on the same basis.

  Usually costs: 2 to 3 marks in a 5-mark comparison.

• ✗Mistake: Saying Belgian State Governments are under the Centre

  Students assume the Centre is always the boss.

  Wrong working

  The State Governments in Belgium work under the Central Government.

  Right working

  Many powers of the Central Government were given to the State Governments of the two regions, and these State Governments are not subordinate to the Central Government.

  ✓Do this: Learn 'not subordinate' as part of the feature.

  Usually costs: 1 mark in a 2-mark question on Centre-State sharing in Belgium.

NCERT exercise guide: Power-sharing

What each exercise in the NCERT chapter tests, how to approach it, and a question of the same kind solved step by step. Questions here are written in our own words.

Power-sharing: previous year questions

• Asked in 21 of the 21 board papers we hold (2023 to 2026), on average 4.5 marks per paper; 44 questions in all, counting OR alternatives. In 4 of 4 sample papers.

Counted from the real papers on our previous year papers page, not estimated. Average marks are over every board paper we hold, with an OR pair counted once. Chapter tags are ours.

Solved board questions from Power-sharing

Real questions from recent papers. Try each one first, then open our step-by-step solution with marks per step.

Every Power-sharing question, by year

Practice questions on Power-sharing

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

   Which language group forms the majority in the city of Brussels?
   (a) Dutch-speaking, about 80 per cent
   (b) French-speaking, about 80 per cent
   (c) German-speaking, about 20 per cent
   (d) Dutch-speaking, about 59 per cent

   Hint

   The national majority is not the majority in the capital.

   Answer

   (b) French-speaking, about 80 per cent. Dutch speakers are only about 20 per cent in Brussels, though they are 59 per cent of Belgium's population.

2. Q2 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

   Distinguish between Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Tamils. (2 marks)

   Hint

   Think about where each group's forefathers came from.

   Answer

   Sri Lankan Tamils are Tamil natives of the country, about 13 per cent, concentrated in the north and east. Indian Tamils are those whose forefathers came from India as plantation workers during the colonial period.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

   Match the forms of power sharing with their examples and choose the correct code.
   1. Among organs of government - A. Reserved constituencies
   2. Among levels of government - B. Coalition government
   3. Among social groups - C. Checks and balances
   4. Among political parties - D. Union and State Governments
   (a) 1-C, 2-D, 3-A, 4-B
   (b) 1-D, 2-C, 3-B, 4-A
   (c) 1-C, 2-A, 3-D, 4-B
   (d) 1-B, 2-D, 3-A, 4-C

   Hint

   Fix the easiest pair first: which example gives weaker sections a voice?

   Answer

   (a) 1-C, 2-D, 3-A, 4-B. Organs check each other, levels mean Union and State, reserved seats give social groups a share, and allied parties form a coalition.

4. Q4 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

   Assertion (A): In Belgium, the State Governments are subordinate to the Central Government.
   Reason (R): Many powers of the Central Government have been given to the State Governments of the two regions.
   (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
   (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
   (c) A is true but R is false.
   (d) A is false but R is true.

   Hint

   Check carefully what the Belgian model says about the status of State Governments.

   Answer

   (d) A is false but R is true. Belgian State Governments received many central powers and are not subordinate to the Central Government.

5. Q5 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   Explain why tension arose between the Dutch-speaking and French-speaking communities in Belgium. (3 marks)

   Hint

   Think about wealth, timing of development, and the capital.

   Answer

   The French-speaking minority was relatively rich and powerful. The Dutch-speaking majority resented this because it got the benefits of economic development and education much later. This caused tension in the 1950s and 1960s, most acute in Brussels, where Dutch speakers were a minority though a national majority.

6. Q6 · 5 marks · Long answerHarder board level

   Contrast the treatment of minorities in Belgium and Sri Lanka. Which of the two approaches does India's Constitution follow? Give reasons. (5 marks)

   Hint

   Use accommodation versus majoritarianism, then look at India's forms of sharing.

   Answer

   Belgium accommodated minorities: equal Dutch and French ministers, special laws needing a majority of each group, non-subordinate State Governments, equal representation in Brussels and community governments. Unity was saved.
   Sri Lanka imposed Sinhala supremacy: the 1956 Sinhala-only Act, job and university preferences, and state protection of Buddhism. This led to alienation and civil war.
   India follows the Belgian path: its constitution divides power between Union and States, extends it to panchayats and municipalities, and provides reserved constituencies for weaker sections.

7. Q7 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   What is meant by a system of checks and balances? Explain with examples. (3 marks)

   Hint

   Think of ministers and Parliament, and of judges and laws.

   Answer

   Power is shared among the legislature, executive and judiciary so that each checks the others and none uses unlimited power. For example, ministers and officials are responsible to Parliament or State Assemblies, and judges, though appointed by the executive, can check the executive and laws made by legislatures. This keeps a balance of power.

8. Q8 · 2 marks · Very short answerHarder board level

   Why did the French-speaking community agree to equal representation in the Brussels government, though it was the majority there? (2 marks)

   Hint

   It was a give-and-take deal.

   Answer

   The Dutch-speaking community, the majority in the country, had accepted equal representation in the Central Government. In return, the French speakers, the majority in Brussels, accepted equality there, so neither side could dominate.

9. Q9 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   Suppose a country's top court strikes down a law that removed a minority community's right to run schools in its own language. Identify two forms of power sharing at work here and explain each. (3 marks)

   Hint

   One form is about organs of government; the other is about communities.

   Answer

   Horizontal sharing: the judiciary checks a law made by the legislature, so no organ uses unlimited power. Sharing among social groups: protecting the minority's control over its own education gives it a fair share of power, as Belgium's community government does for culture and education, so it does not feel alienated.

10. Q10 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

    Belgium: Dutch speakers are 59 per cent nationally but about 20 per cent in Brussels. French speakers are 40 per cent nationally but about 80 per cent in Brussels. Use this data to explain why equal representation at the centre and in Brussels was a fair arrangement. (3 marks)

    Hint

    Each group is strong in one place and weak in the other.

    Answer

    Each community is a majority in one arena and a minority in the other: Dutch speakers nationally, French speakers in Brussels. Equal representation at the centre protects French speakers, and equality in Brussels protects Dutch speakers. Since both give up an advantage, neither can act alone, which avoided a messy fight over Brussels.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.What share of Belgians speak Dutch, and where do they live?Show answer

   59 per cent, in the Flemish region.

2. 2.What did Sri Lanka's 1956 Act do?Show answer

   It recognised Sinhala as the only official language, disregarding Tamil.

3. 3.Define majoritarianism.Show answer

   The belief that the majority should rule as it wants, ignoring the wishes and needs of the minority.

4. 4.How many times did Belgium amend its constitution, and when?Show answer

   Four times, between 1970 and 1993.

5. 5.What does Belgium's community government deal with?Show answer

   Cultural, educational and language-related issues.

6. 6.Name the two sets of reasons for power sharing.Show answer

   Prudential (better outcomes) and moral (the spirit of democracy).

7. 7.What is the system of checks and balances?Show answer

   Each organ of government checks the others, so none has unlimited power.

8. 8.Which city was chosen as the headquarters of the European Union?Show answer

   Brussels.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Can you give Belgium's 59-40-1 split and Brussels' 80-20 split?
• ☐Can you explain why the Dutch-speaking majority resented the French-speaking minority?
• ☐Can you name the two Tamil groups in Sri Lanka and where Sri Lankan Tamils live?
• ☐Can you list three majoritarian measures and the 1956 date?
• ☐Can you trace the path from alienation to the Tamil Eelam demand and civil war?
• ☐Can you state the four features of the Belgian model without looking?
• ☐Can you write one prudential and one moral reason in a line each?
• ☐Can you match the four forms with separation of powers, federal, community and coalition government?
• ☐Can you give an Indian example for each form of power sharing?
• ☐Can you explain why power sharing protects unity and stability rather than weakening a country?

Power-sharing: frequently asked questions