Federalism Class 10: Notes, Features and Board Answers

What Federalism is about

Weightage: Political Science carries 20 of the 80 theory marks; this chapter shares them with Power-sharing, Gender, Religion and Caste, Political Parties and Outcomes of Democracy.Source: CBSE Social Science syllabus 2026-27, Political Science

In real board papers: asked in 21 of the 21 board papers we hold (2023 to 2026), on average 4 marks per paper. See the questions

Key concepts

What federalism is and how it differs from a unitary system

NCERT section What is federalism?

Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and the constituent units of a country, such as states or provinces. Usually there are two levels. The government for the whole country handles a few subjects of common national interest, while state or provincial governments look after much of the day-to-day running of their area. The key point is that each level enjoys its power independently of the other.

A unitary system works differently. Either there is only one level of government, or the lower units are subordinate to the centre, which can pass orders down to them. In a federation the central government cannot order a state government to do something, because the state has powers of its own, and both governments are separately answerable to the people.

Belgium shows the difference. Its regional governments existed earlier, but the centre could withdraw their powers. In 1993 they got constitutional powers no longer dependent on the centre, so Belgium became federal. Sri Lanka remains, for all practical purposes, unitary.

Worked example

Distinguish between a federal and a unitary form of government. Support your answer with one example of each. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Federal: power is divided between a central authority and constituent units; each level has its own powers and the centre cannot order the state government. (1)
2. Unitary: there is only one level, or the sub-units are subordinate and the centre can pass orders to them. (1)
3. Examples: Belgium became federal after 1993 (or India); Sri Lanka is practically unitary. (1)

Answer: - In a federal system, power is divided between a central authority and constituent units; each level has powers of its own, and the centre cannot order a state government.
- In a unitary system, there is one level, or sub-units are subordinate and the centre can pass orders to them.
- Example: Belgium became federal in 1993; Sri Lanka remains practically unitary.

Key features and dual objectives of federalism

NCERT section What is federalism?

A federation is recognised by a set of features:

• There are two or more tiers of government.
• The tiers govern the same citizens, but each has its own jurisdiction (area of legal authority) in legislation, taxation and administration.
• These jurisdictions are written in the constitution, so each tier's existence and authority is guaranteed.
• Fundamental provisions cannot be changed by one level alone; both levels must consent.
• Courts interpret the constitution, and the highest court acts as umpire in disputes between levels.
• Sources of revenue for each level are specified, giving financial autonomy.

Why these features? Federalism has dual objectives: to safeguard and promote the unity of the country, and at the same time to accommodate regional diversity. For this to work, governments must agree on rules of power sharing and trust that each will keep its part of the agreement. An ideal federation therefore rests on mutual trust and an agreement to live together. The features above are the written rules; trust is what makes them work.

Worked example

Assertion (A): In a federation, the sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified.
Reason (R): This ensures the financial autonomy of each level of government.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true. (1 mark)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. A is a listed feature of federalism, so A is true. (½)
2. R is true and gives the purpose of specifying revenue sources, so it explains A. (½)

Answer: Option (a): Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

Coming together and holding together federations

NCERT section What is federalism?

How power is balanced between the centre and the states is not the same in every federation. The difference comes from how each federation came into being. Two routes exist.

Coming together: independent States decide on their own to join and form a bigger unit. They pool their sovereignty but keep their separate identity, and this makes them more secure. Examples are the USA, Switzerland and Australia. Because the States chose to join, they usually have equal power and are strong compared to the federal government.

Holding together: an existing large country chooses to hand some of its powers to its States while keeping a national government. Examples are India, Spain and Belgium. Here the Central Government tends to be more powerful, and the units often have unequal powers; some are given special powers.

The logic is simple: whoever existed first keeps more power. In coming together, the States existed first. In holding together, the country existed first and handed some power down. This explains why Indian States do not all have identical powers.

Worked example

Why do the constituent States of the USA enjoy equal powers while all States in India do not? Explain. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. The USA is a coming together federation: independent States pooled sovereignty to increase security, so they are equal and strong vis-à-vis the federal government. (1)
2. India is a holding together federation: a large country divided power, so the Central Government is more powerful and units can be unequal. (1)
3. Example: Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram enjoy special powers under Article 371. (1)

Answer: - The USA is a coming together federation: independent States pooled sovereignty for security, so all States are equal and strong vis-à-vis the federal government.
- India is a holding together federation: a large country divided its power, so the Centre is stronger and units can be unequal.
- For example, Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram enjoy special powers under Article 371.

Three lists and residuary subjects

NCERT section What makes India a federal country?

The Indian Constitution makes a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the States.

• Union List: subjects of national importance such as defence, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency. Only the Union Government makes laws on them, because the country needs a uniform policy on these matters everywhere.
• State List: matters best handled at State and local level, such as police, trade, commerce, farming (agriculture) and irrigation. Only State Governments legislate on these.
• Concurrent List: subjects of common interest such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession. Both can make laws; if their laws conflict, the Union law prevails.

What about subjects in none of the lists, or new ones like computer software that came up after the Constitution was made? These are residuary subjects, and the Union Government has the power to legislate on them.

Notice the reasoning: the list a subject goes into depends on whether it needs one national rule, local handling, or both. The conflict rule and residuary powers again show that India's Centre is stronger, as expected in a holding together federation.

Worked example

Match List I with List II and choose the correct option. (1 mark)
List I: 1. Currency 2. Irrigation 3. Succession 4. Computer software
List II: A. Concurrent List B. Residuary subject C. Union List D. State List
(a) 1-C, 2-D, 3-A, 4-B
(b) 1-D, 2-C, 3-B, 4-A
(c) 1-C, 2-A, 3-D, 4-B
(d) 1-A, 2-D, 3-C, 4-B

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Currency is in the Union List and irrigation in the State List. (½)
2. Succession is in the Concurrent List and computer software is a residuary subject, so option (a). (½)

Answer: Option (a): 1-C, 2-D, 3-A, 4-B.

Other federal provisions of the Indian Constitution

NCERT section What makes India a federal country?

The Constitution declared India a Union of States. It did not use the word federation, but the Indian Union is based on federal principles. Several provisions prove this.

• It originally created two tiers (Union and State governments); a third tier of Panchayats and Municipalities was added later.
• Special status: Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram enjoy special powers under Article 371 because of their peculiar social and historical circumstances. These protect land rights of indigenous peoples, their culture and preferential government jobs. Non-permanent residents cannot buy land or houses there.
• Union Territories such as Chandigarh, Lakshadweep and Delhi are too small to be States but could not be merged with any State. They have little power; the Centre has special powers to run them.
• Changing the arrangement is hard: Parliament cannot do it alone. A change needs at least a two-thirds majority in both Houses, then ratification by at least half of the State legislatures.
• Judiciary: High Courts and the Supreme Court decide disputes about division of powers.
• Both levels can levy taxes to raise resources.

Worked example

'India is a Union of States, yet it is federal in nature.' Explain any five provisions of the Indian Constitution that support this statement. (5 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Separate tiers: Union and State governments, with Panchayats and Municipalities as a third tier, each with its own jurisdiction. (1)
2. Three lists divide legislative powers: Union, State and Concurrent; residuary subjects go to the Union. (1)
3. Power-sharing cannot be changed by Parliament alone: two-thirds majority in both Houses plus ratification by at least half the State legislatures. (1)
4. High Courts and the Supreme Court settle disputes about division of powers. (1)
5. Both levels can levy taxes to raise resources; some States have special status under Article 371. (1)

Answer: - Tiers: Union and State governments, plus a third tier of Panchayats and Municipalities, each with separate jurisdiction.
- Three lists: Union List (defence), State List (police) and Concurrent List (education); residuary subjects go to the Union.
- Rigid amendment: Parliament alone cannot change power sharing; it needs a two-thirds majority in both Houses and ratification by at least half the State legislatures.
- Judiciary as umpire: High Courts and the Supreme Court decide disputes over division of powers.
- Financial powers: both Union and States can levy taxes for their responsibilities.
Also, States like Nagaland enjoy special powers under Article 371, typical of a holding together federation.

Linguistic States and language policy

NCERT section Linguistic States; Language policy

Constitutional provisions are necessary but not sufficient. India's federalism succeeded mainly because of the nature of democratic politics, which made respect for diversity and the desire to live together shared ideals.

Linguistic States were the first major test. Boundaries of old States were changed so that people speaking the same language lived in the same State. Some States, like Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand, were created on the basis of culture, ethnicity or geography instead. Some national leaders feared this would break up the country, and the Centre resisted for some time. Experience showed the opposite: the country became more united and administration became easier.

Language policy was the second test. No language was made the national language. Hindi became the official language, but it is the mother tongue of less than half of Indians, so other languages were protected. Besides Hindi, 21 other Scheduled Languages are recognised; Central Government exams can be taken in any of them, and States have their own official languages. English was to stop for official use in 1965, but after protests by non-Hindi States (violent in Tamil Nadu), English continued along with Hindi. Hindi is promoted, never imposed. This flexibility helped India avoid Sri Lanka's situation.

Why was such care needed? The Census of India 2011 recorded more than 1300 distinct languages that people named as their mother tongue. Even after grouping them, there were 121 major languages, of which 22 are in the Eighth Schedule and are called Scheduled Languages. Hindi, the largest, is the mother tongue of only about 44 per cent of Indians; even adding people who know it as a second or third language, the total stayed below 50 per cent. Only 0.02 per cent recorded English as their mother tongue. So no single language is the mother tongue of a majority of Indians. Imposing one language on everyone would have left most people feeling shut out, which is why accommodation was the wiser path.

Worked example

Read the passage and answer the questions. (4 marks)

After Independence, India faced a hard question: how should a country with so many languages be run? The Constitution did not make any single language the national language. Hindi became the official language, but it was the mother tongue of less than half of the people, so other languages were protected. Besides Hindi, 21 more languages were recognised as Scheduled Languages, and every State could do much of its work in its own official language. The Constitution had planned that English would stop being used for official purposes in 1965. Many non-Hindi speaking States objected, and in Tamil Nadu the protest became violent. The Central Government then agreed that English would continue along with Hindi. Promoting Hindi remains official policy, but it cannot be forced on any State.

(i) What status did the Constitution give to Hindi? (1)
(ii) How does Scheduled Language status help a candidate in a Central Government examination? (1)
(iii) 'Flexibility in language policy strengthened Indian federalism.' Justify with two points. (2)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. (i) Hindi is the official language, not a national language. (1)
2. (ii) The candidate may take the examination in any Scheduled Language. (1)
3. (iii) Continuing English after protests accommodated non-Hindi States and avoided conflict like Sri Lanka's. (1)
4. (iii) Hindi is promoted but not imposed and States keep their own official languages, showing respect for diversity. (1)

Answer: (i) Hindi was made the official language; no language was given the status of national language.

(ii) A candidate can choose to write the examination in any of the Scheduled Languages, not only Hindi.

(iii) - When non-Hindi States protested in 1965, the Centre continued English along with Hindi, accommodating them and avoiding a Sri Lanka-like conflict.
- Hindi is promoted but not imposed, and States use their own official languages, so diversity is respected and unity grows.

Centre-State relations after 1990

NCERT section Centre-State relations

How constitutional rules work in reality depends largely on how ruling parties and leaders follow them. Restructuring Centre-State relations is a third way federalism was strengthened in practice.

For a long time, the same party ruled at the Centre and in most States. So State Governments did not use their rights as autonomous units. When a State was ruled by a different party, the party at the Centre tried to undermine it. The Central Government often misused the Constitution to dismiss State Governments run by rival parties, which hurt the spirit of federalism.

This changed significantly after 1990. Regional political parties rose in many States, and the era of coalition governments at the Centre began. A coalition government is formed by at least two parties coming together, usually with a common programme. Since no single party won a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, national parties had to ally with several regional parties. The Centre now needed State-based partners, so it had to respect them. This created a new culture of power sharing and respect for State autonomy. A major Supreme Court judgement made it difficult to dismiss State Governments arbitrarily. So federal power sharing is more effective today than in the early years.

Worked example

How did the rise of regional parties and coalition governments after 1990 strengthen federalism in India? Explain. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Before 1990, one party ruled the Centre and most States; rival State governments were often dismissed by misusing the Constitution. (1)
2. After 1990, no party won a clear Lok Sabha majority, so national parties formed coalitions with regional parties, creating a culture of power sharing and respect for State autonomy. (1)
3. A Supreme Court judgement made arbitrary dismissal of State governments difficult. (1)

Answer: - Earlier, one party dominated the Centre and most States, and the Centre often misused the Constitution to dismiss State governments of rival parties.
- After 1990, no party got a clear majority, so national parties formed coalitions with regional parties, which built respect for State autonomy.
- A Supreme Court judgement made arbitrary dismissal of State governments difficult.

Decentralisation and the 1992 amendment

NCERT section Decentralisation in India

Decentralisation means taking power away from the Central and State governments and giving it to local government. India needs it because its States are as large as European countries: Uttar Pradesh is bigger than Russia in population, and Maharashtra is about as big as Germany. Many States are also internally diverse, so power must be shared within them too.

The idea is that many problems are best settled locally. Local people know their problems, have better ideas on spending money and managing things, and can participate directly in decisions, which builds a habit of democratic participation. This realises the principle of local self-government.

Before 1992, panchayats and municipalities existed, but they were under State control, elections were irregular, and they had no powers or resources of their own. The 1992 amendment changed this:

• Regular elections became constitutionally mandatory.
• Seats and executive head posts are reserved for SCs, STs and OBCs.
• At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
• A State Election Commission in each State conducts these elections.
• States must share some powers and revenue with local bodies; the nature of sharing varies by State.

Worked example

Why was decentralisation needed in India? Explain how the Constitutional amendment of 1992 made the third tier of government more effective. (5 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Need: States are very large and internally diverse, so power must be shared within States. (1)
2. Need: local people know local problems, can decide spending better and participate directly, realising local self-government. (1)
3. Regular elections to local bodies made constitutionally mandatory; a State Election Commission created in each State. (1)
4. Seats and executive posts reserved for SCs, STs and OBCs; at least one-third of positions reserved for women. (1)
5. State governments must share some powers and revenue with local bodies. (1)

Answer: Need for decentralisation
- Indian States are as large as European countries and internally diverse, so power must be shared within them.
- Local people understand local problems, know where money should be spent and can participate directly, realising local self-government.

1992 amendment
- Regular elections to local bodies became constitutionally mandatory, conducted by an independent State Election Commission in each State.
- Seats and executive heads are reserved for SCs, STs and OBCs.
- At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
- States must share some powers and revenue with local bodies.

Earlier, local bodies were under State control with irregular elections and no resources, so these changes made the third tier effective.

Structure of local government and its record

NCERT section Decentralisation in India

Rural local government is known as panchayati raj. Its base is the gram panchayat, set up for a village or, in some States, for a cluster of villages. It is a council of ward members (panch) and a president (sarpanch), directly elected by all adults of the ward or village. It is the decision-making body of the village. It works under the supervision of the gram sabha, whose members are all the voters of the village. The gram sabha must meet at least twice or thrice a year to approve the panchayat's budget and review its work.

A few gram panchayats form a panchayat samiti (block or mandal), whose members are elected by all panchayat members of that area. All samitis in a district form the zilla parishad; most members are elected, and Lok Sabha members and MLAs of the district also sit on it. Its chairperson is the political head.

Towns have municipalities (headed by a municipal chairperson); big cities have municipal corporations (headed by a mayor).

The record: about 36 lakh elected representatives, deeper democracy and more voice for women. But gram sabhas are not held regularly, and most States have not given enough powers or resources. The ideal of self-government is still far away.

Participation can go further than this. In Porto Alegre, a city in Brazil, a parallel organisation works alongside the elected municipal council so that residents take real decisions. The city is divided into sectors or wards, and each ward holds a meeting, much like a gram sabha, open to anyone living there; some meetings deal with issues of the whole city. The city budget is discussed in these meetings, and the proposals go to the municipality, which takes the final decision. About 20,000 people take part every year. The result: money is not spent only on colonies where rich people live. Buses now run to poor colonies, and builders cannot evict slum-dwellers without resettling them. In India, some areas of Kerala tried something similar, with ordinary people helping to plan the development of their locality. This is the core idea of decentralisation at work: when people take part directly, decisions serve more of them.

Worked example

A student wrote: 'The gram sabha is a council of the panch and sarpanch elected by the adults of the village. Members of the panchayat samiti are directly elected by all voters of the block. The political head of a municipal corporation is called the municipal chairperson.' Identify and correct the three errors. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. The council of panch and sarpanch is the gram panchayat; the gram sabha consists of all voters of the village. (1)
2. Panchayat samiti members are elected by all the panchayat members in that area, not directly by all voters. (1)
3. The political head of a municipal corporation is the mayor; the municipal chairperson heads a municipality. (1)

Answer: - The council of panch and sarpanch is the gram panchayat; the gram sabha is made up of all the voters of the village and supervises the panchayat.
- Panchayat samiti members are elected by all the panchayat members of that area.
- The political head of a municipal corporation is the mayor; a municipal chairperson heads a municipality.

Federalism in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• What is Federalism? Features and Types
• What Makes India a Federal Country
• Linguistic States and Language PolicyComing soon
• Centre-State RelationsComing soon
• Decentralisation in India

Federalism: key facts

Federal vs unitary

Federal: power divided between centre and constituent units, each independent. Unitary: one level, or sub-units subordinate to the centre.

Use for 'distinguish' questions; add Belgium (federal) and Sri Lanka (unitary) as examples.

Jurisdiction

The area over which someone has legal authority, defined by geography or by subjects.

Use when writing the feature that each tier has its own jurisdiction.

Belgium, 1993

Regional governments got constitutional powers no longer dependent on the centre; Belgium shifted from unitary to federal.

Use as the example of moving from unitary to federal.

Coming together federation

Independent States join to pool sovereignty and increase security; USA, Switzerland, Australia; States equal and strong.

Use for type and comparison questions.

Holding together federation

A large country divides power; India, Spain, Belgium; Centre stronger, units often unequal.

Use to explain why Indian States do not all have equal powers.

Union List

Defence, foreign affairs, banking, communications, currency; only the Union legislates.

Reason: these need a uniform national policy.

State List

Police, trade, commerce, agriculture, irrigation; only States legislate.

Do not confuse trade (State) with trade unions (Concurrent).

Concurrent List

Education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption, succession; both legislate; Union law prevails in conflict.

Use for MCQs and assertion-reason items on the conflict rule.

Residuary subjects

Subjects in no list, such as computer software; the Union Government legislates.

Use in matching questions and to show a strong Centre.

Article 371

Special powers for States such as Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram: land rights, culture, preferential jobs.

Use as the example of unequal powers in a holding together federation.

Union Territories

Areas like Chandigarh, Lakshadweep and Delhi; too small for Statehood, run with special powers of the Centre.

Use for units with very little power.

Changing power sharing

Two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament, then ratification by at least half of the State legislatures.

Use to show Parliament cannot change it alone.

Language policy

No national language; Hindi official language; 21 other Scheduled Languages; States have own official languages.

Use for language policy and Scheduled Language questions.

1965 and English

English was to stop for official use in 1965; after protests, violent in Tamil Nadu, it continued with Hindi.

Use to show flexibility of Indian leaders.

After 1990

Rise of regional parties and coalition governments; Supreme Court judgement against arbitrary dismissal of States.

Use for how Centre-State relations improved.

1992 amendment

Regular elections, SC/ST/OBC reservation, at least one-third seats for women, State Election Commission, sharing of powers and revenue.

Use for 5-mark and statement-based MCQs on decentralisation.

How the board asks Federalism

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember Federalism

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• Two types of federation

  Coming together = 'SUA came on their own': Switzerland, USA, Australia. Holding together = 'I Stay Bound': India, Spain, Belgium.

  Use it when: Type, comparison and example questions.

• Union List

  D-F-B-C-C: Defence, Foreign affairs, Banking, Communications, Currency. Think 'one country, one rule'.

  Use it when: Matching MCQs and examples in 3-mark answers.

• State List

  'Police Take Care of Agriculture and Irrigation': Police, Trade, Commerce, Agriculture, Irrigation.

  Use it when: Separating State subjects from Concurrent ones.

• Concurrent List

  E-F-T plus family laws: Education, Forest, Trade unions, and Marriage, Adoption, Succession. In a clash, 'Union wins'.

  Use it when: Concurrent List and conflict-rule questions.

• 1992 amendment

  'Every Rural Woman Sees Sharing': Elections regular, Reservation for SC/ST/OBC, Women at least one-third, State Election Commission, Sharing of powers and revenue.

  Use it when: 5-mark answers and statement-checking MCQs.

• Changing power sharing

  'Two-thirds up, half across': two-thirds majority in both Houses, then at least half of the State legislatures.

  Use it when: Provisions that make India federal.

Federalism: board-level solved questions

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section E style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In the board paper this is a 4-mark question split into 1 + 1 + 2 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in Federalism

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Writing two-thirds reservation for women in local bodies

  Students mix up the 'two-thirds' from the amendment procedure with the women's reservation figure.

  Wrong working

  Two-thirds of seats in panchayats are reserved for women.

  Right working

  At least one-third of all positions in local bodies are reserved for women.

  ✓Do this: Link 'two-thirds' only with Parliament's majority and 'one-third' only with women.

  Usually costs: The full mark in an MCQ, or 1 mark in a 5-mark answer.

• ✗Mistake: Saying the State law prevails in a Concurrent List conflict

  Students assume local laws win because the subject affects the State directly.

  Wrong working

  If Union and State laws on education conflict, the State law is followed in that State.

  Right working

  If Union and State laws on a Concurrent subject conflict, the law made by the Union Government prevails.

  ✓Do this: Remember the pattern: in a holding together federation, the Centre is stronger.

  Usually costs: 1 mark in an MCQ or assertion-reason question.

• ✗Mistake: Calling India a coming together federation

  Princely states joining after Independence sounds like 'coming together'.

  Wrong working

  India is a coming together federation because many States joined it.

  Right working

  India is a holding together federation: a large country divided power between the Centre and States, so the Centre is stronger.

  ✓Do this: Ask: did the country exist first? If yes, it is holding together.

  Usually costs: 1 to 2 marks in a comparison question.

• ✗Mistake: Calling Hindi the national language

  Hindi is widely used and promoted, so students assume it has national status.

  Wrong working

  The Constitution made Hindi the national language of India.

  Right working

  The Constitution gave no language national language status; Hindi is the official language, with 21 other Scheduled Languages.

  ✓Do this: Write 'official language' every time you mention Hindi.

  Usually costs: 1 mark in a case-based part or short answer.

• ✗Mistake: Saying Parliament can change Centre-State power sharing by itself

  Students know Parliament makes laws and forget the extra step.

  Wrong working

  Parliament can change the division of powers by passing an amendment.

  Right working

  A change needs at least a two-thirds majority in both Houses and ratification by at least half of the State legislatures.

  ✓Do this: Always write both steps of the procedure.

  Usually costs: 1 mark in a 5-mark answer on federal provisions.

• ✗Mistake: Confusing gram sabha with gram panchayat

  Both names start with 'gram' and both deal with the village.

  Wrong working

  The gram sabha is made up of the panch and the sarpanch.

  Right working

  The gram panchayat is the council of panch and sarpanch; the gram sabha is all the voters of the village and supervises the panchayat.

  ✓Do this: Sabha = all voters (big gathering); panchayat = elected council.

  Usually costs: 1 mark per part in a case-based question.

• ✗Mistake: Writing general features when asked what makes India federal

  Students reuse the features list from the first section without Indian examples.

  Wrong working

  There are two or more tiers; courts act as umpire; revenue sources are specified.

  Right working

  India has Union, State and local tiers; three lists divide powers; High Courts and the Supreme Court settle disputes; Union and States levy taxes.

  ✓Do this: For every feature, add the Indian provision or example.

  Usually costs: Up to half the marks in a 5-mark answer.

NCERT exercise guide: Federalism

What each exercise in the NCERT chapter tests, how to approach it, and a question of the same kind solved step by step. Questions here are written in our own words.

Federalism: previous year questions

• Asked in 21 of the 21 board papers we hold (2023 to 2026), on average 4 marks per paper; 49 questions in all, counting OR alternatives. In 4 of 4 sample papers.

Counted from the real papers on our previous year papers page, not estimated. Average marks are over every board paper we hold, with an OR pair counted once. Chapter tags are ours.

Solved board questions from Federalism

Real questions from recent papers. Try each one first, then open our step-by-step solution with marks per step.

Every Federalism question, by year

Practice questions on Federalism

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

   Read the following statements about the Constitutional amendment of 1992 and choose the correct option:
   I. Regular elections to local government bodies became constitutionally mandatory.
   II. Two-thirds of all positions in local bodies are reserved for women.
   III. A State Election Commission was created in each State to conduct panchayat and municipal elections.
   IV. State governments must share some powers and revenue with local government bodies.
   (a) I, II and III
   (b) I, III and IV
   (c) II, III and IV
   (d) I, II and IV

   Hint

   Check the women's reservation figure carefully: is it one-third or two-thirds?

   Answer

   (b) I, III and IV. Statement II is wrong: at least one-third, not two-thirds, of all positions are reserved for women. The two-thirds figure belongs to the majority Parliament needs to change Centre-State power sharing.

2. Q2 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   Suppose a State government wants to pass a law on trade unions in its factories, while Parliament is also considering a law on the same subject. Can the State go ahead? What happens if both laws are passed and they conflict? How would your answer change if the subject were the State's police? (3 marks)

   Hint

   Find the list for each subject first, then apply the rule for that list.

   Answer

   • Trade unions are in the Concurrent List, so the State can make a law on them, and so can Parliament.
   • If the two laws conflict, the law made by the Union Government prevails.
   • Police is in the State List, so only the State Government can make laws on it; the Centre cannot order the State on this subject.

3. Q3 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   Distinguish between a State such as Nagaland and a Union Territory such as Chandigarh in terms of their powers. Why does the Indian Union have both kinds of units? (3 marks)

   Hint

   One has special powers; the other has very little power. Think about size and history.

   Answer

   • Nagaland is a State with its own government and even special powers under Article 371, because of its peculiar social and historical circumstances.
   • Chandigarh is a Union Territory: it does not have the powers of a State, and the Centre has special powers in running it.
   • Union Territories exist because some areas are too small to be a State but could not be merged with any existing State.

4. Q4 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

   Match List I with List II and choose the correct option.
   List I: 1. Banking 2. Commerce 3. Trade unions 4. Computer software
   List II: A. State List B. Residuary subject C. Concurrent List D. Union List
   (a) 1-D, 2-A, 3-C, 4-B
   (b) 1-D, 2-C, 3-A, 4-B
   (c) 1-A, 2-D, 3-C, 4-B
   (d) 1-D, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C

   Hint

   Commerce and trade are State subjects, but trade unions are shared.

   Answer

   (a) 1-D, 2-A, 3-C, 4-B. Banking is in the Union List, commerce in the State List, trade unions in the Concurrent List, and computer software is a residuary subject on which the Union legislates.

5. Q5 · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level

   Explain how the judiciary and the division of revenue support federalism in India. (3 marks)

   Hint

   One point on courts as umpire, one on taxes and autonomy.

   Answer

   • The judiciary oversees the implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures.
   • In disputes over division of powers, the High Courts and Supreme Court decide, acting as umpire.
   • Both Union and State governments can levy taxes to raise resources for their responsibilities, which gives each level financial autonomy.

6. Q6 · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level

   Not all States in India were created on the basis of language. Explain with examples, and state two results of creating linguistic States. (3 marks)

   Hint

   Culture, ethnicity or geography; then think of unity and administration.

   Answer

   Some States were created to recognise differences of culture, ethnicity or geography, such as Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand. Results: although some leaders feared disintegration, linguistic States made the country more united, and they made administration easier.

7. Q7 · 5 marks · Long answerBoard level

   Explain any five key features of federalism. (5 marks)

   Hint

   Tiers, jurisdiction, constitution, consent for change, courts, revenue.

   Answer

   • Two or more tiers of government.
   • Each tier governs the same citizens but has its own jurisdiction in legislation, taxation and administration.
   • Jurisdictions are specified in the constitution, so each tier's existence is guaranteed.
   • Fundamental provisions cannot be changed by one level alone; both must consent.
   • Courts interpret the constitution and the highest court acts as umpire in disputes.
   • Sources of revenue are clearly specified for financial autonomy. (any five)

8. Q8 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   How did Centre-State relations in the early years after the Constitution came into force weaken the spirit of federalism? (3 marks)

   Hint

   Same party everywhere; what happened when a State was ruled by a rival?

   Answer

   • For a long time the same party ruled at the Centre and in most States, so States did not use their rights as autonomous units.
   • When a different party ruled a State, the ruling party at the Centre tried to undermine the State's power.
   • The Centre often misused the Constitution to dismiss State governments run by rival parties.

9. Q9 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   Only 25 of the world's 193 countries have federal systems, yet their citizens make up 40 per cent of the world's population. What can you infer from this, and why might large countries prefer federalism? (3 marks)

   Hint

   Few countries, many people: what does that say about their size?

   Answer

   Inference: federal countries are few, but they hold a large share of people, so most large countries are federations. Reasons: big countries have many languages, religions and regions; federalism accommodates this regional diversity while keeping the country united, and lets State governments handle day-to-day administration close to the people.

10. Q10 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

    Suppose the legislature of one State passes a resolution demanding that police should become a Union List subject, and that this change be made at once. Can one State or Parliament alone make this change? Explain the correct procedure. (3 marks)

    Hint

    Division of powers is basic to the Constitution; who must agree to change it?

    Answer

    No. The division of powers is basic to the Constitution and cannot be changed by one State or by Parliament alone. The change must first be passed by both Houses of Parliament with at least a two-thirds majority, and then be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of all the States.

11. Q11 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

    Imagine a village panchayat as it worked before 1992 and the same panchayat after the Constitutional amendment of 1992. Compare its position on any three points. (3 marks)

    Hint

    Pair each 'before' with its matching 'after': elections, control, powers and resources.

    Answer

    • Elections: before 1992 they were not held regularly; now regular elections are constitutionally mandatory.
    • Control: earlier panchayats were directly under State control; now an independent State Election Commission conducts their elections.
    • Powers and resources: earlier they had none of their own; now States must share some powers and revenue with them, and at least one-third of positions are reserved for women.

12. Q12 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

    Study these Census 2011 facts from the NCERT text: Hindi is the mother tongue of about 44 per cent of Indians; even with second- and third-language speakers, Hindi was known by less than 50 per cent; only 0.02 per cent recorded English as their mother tongue, while another 11 per cent knew it as a second or third language. (a) What do these figures show about whether any language is spoken by a majority? (b) Use them to justify why Indian leaders did not impose Hindi and continued English after 1965. (3 marks)

    Hint

    If even the largest language is below half, what happens to the rest if one is imposed?

    Answer

    (a) No single language is the mother tongue of a majority; even Hindi, the largest, is known by less than half of Indians.
    (b) Imposing Hindi would have left most people outside the official language, as non-Hindi States' protests (violent in Tamil Nadu) showed. So the Centre continued English with Hindi and protected 21 other Scheduled Languages, keeping all groups included and the country united.

13. Q13 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

    A classmate argues: 'India is no longer a true federation, because the 1992 amendment took some powers from the States and gave them to local bodies.' Do you agree? Justify your answer. (3 marks)

    Hint

    How many tiers can a federation have? Has the Union-State division disappeared?

    Answer

    No. A federation has two or more tiers, and local government is simply India's third tier. The Constitution still divides powers between the Union and the States through the three lists. Decentralisation shares power within large, diverse States, so it deepens democracy and federal power sharing instead of ending it.

14. Q14 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

    State two differences between 'coming together' and 'holding together' federations. (2 marks)

    Hint

    How the federation was formed, and how strong the centre is.

    Answer

    Formation: in a coming together federation, independent States join on their own to form a bigger unit (USA, Switzerland, Australia); in a holding together federation, a large country divides its power between the national government and the constituent States (India, Spain, Belgium). (1)
    Balance: coming together units usually have equal power and keep their identity; in holding together federations the central government tends to be more powerful, and units may have unequal powers. (1)

15. Q15 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

    What are residuary subjects? Who can make laws on them in India? (2 marks)

    Hint

    Think of subjects that did not exist when the Constitution was made.

    Answer

    Residuary subjects are subjects that do not fall in any of the three lists (Union, State, Concurrent), such as computer software, which came up after the Constitution was made. (1)
    In India, the Union Government has the power to legislate on these residuary subjects. (1)

16. Q16 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

    Assertion (A): India is an example of a 'holding together' federation.
    Reason (R): In India, every State has exactly the same powers as every other State.
    (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
    (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
    (c) A is true but R is false.
    (d) A is false but R is true.

    Hint

    Think of States such as Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram.

    Answer

    (c) A is true but R is false. India divided power between the Union and the States to hold a large, diverse country together, but its units do not all have equal powers: some States, such as Nagaland and Mizoram, enjoy special powers under certain provisions of the Constitution.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.Define federalism in one line.Show answer

   A system in which power is divided between a central authority and the constituent units of a country, each enjoying its power independently.

2. 2.Name the dual objectives of federalism.Show answer

   To safeguard and promote the unity of the country, and to accommodate regional diversity.

3. 3.Give three examples each of coming together and holding together federations.Show answer

   Coming together: USA, Switzerland, Australia. Holding together: India, Spain, Belgium.

4. 4.Who makes laws on residuary subjects in India?Show answer

   The Union Government, for example on computer software.

5. 5.Which States are named as having special powers under Article 371?Show answer

   Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram.

6. 6.What was the first major test for democratic politics in India's federalism?Show answer

   The creation of linguistic States.

7. 7.What changed in Centre-State relations after 1990?Show answer

   Regional parties rose, coalition governments began at the Centre, and a Supreme Court judgement made arbitrary dismissal of State governments difficult.

8. 8.Who is the political head of a zilla parishad and of a municipal corporation?Show answer

   The zilla parishad chairperson, and the mayor.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Can you define federalism and contrast it with a unitary system using Belgium and Sri Lanka?
• ☐Can you list the key features of federalism and the two things an ideal federation rests on?
• ☐Can you explain coming together and holding together with three examples each?
• ☐Can you place defence, police, education, trade unions, trade and computer software in the right list?
• ☐Can you state what happens when Union and State laws on a Concurrent subject conflict?
• ☐Can you give the two-step procedure for changing Centre-State power sharing?
• ☐Can you explain why linguistic States made India more united, naming States formed on other grounds?
• ☐Can you explain India's language policy and what happened about English in 1965?
• ☐Can you list the five changes of the 1992 amendment and the levels from gram panchayat to zilla parishad?
• ☐Can you give two achievements and two difficulties of local government in India?

Federalism: frequently asked questions