Migration Trends in India: ISC Class 12 Geography

What Migration Trends is about

Weightage: CISCE publishes no chapter or unit weightage for ISC Geography. Migration Trends is part of 2. Population and Human settlements (iv) of the 2027 syllabus and can be asked anywhere in the 70-mark Paper I (Section A one-mark and map items, Section B 4-mark short answers, Section C 7-mark long answers).Source: CISCE ISC Geography (853) syllabus, examination year 2027; ISC 2027 specimen question paper

Key concepts

Migration, migrant and step-wise migration

Migration: the movement of people from one place to another, crossing an administrative boundary, with the intention of settling there permanently or for a long period. Daily commuting or tourism is not migration.

Migrant: a person who has moved from the place of birth or last residence to another place. The census counts migrants in two ways:
1. By place of birth: if the place of enumeration differs from the place of birth.
2. By place of last residence: if the person has come from another village or town where he or she last lived.

In-migration (immigration for international) is movement into an area; out-migration (emigration) is movement out of it; net migration is the difference.

Step-wise migration: migration that takes place in stages rather than in one move. A person moves from a village to a nearby small town, then to a larger city, and finally to a metropolis. Each step builds skills, savings and contacts. For example, a worker from a village in Bihar may first work in Patna, then in Delhi.

Worked example

[2] What is step-wise migration? Give an example. (Understand)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Migration in stages, from smaller to larger places, rather than in one move - 1 mark.
2. Example: village to district town to state capital to metropolis - 1 mark.

Answer: Step-wise migration is migration in a series of stages, usually from a village to a small town, then to a bigger city and finally to a metropolis. For example, a youth from a village in Odisha may move first to Bhubaneswar and later to Bengaluru.

Push and pull factors

Push factors: conditions at the place of origin that drive people out.
1. Poverty, unemployment and underemployment; small, fragmented holdings.
2. Low agricultural productivity, droughts, floods and crop failure.
3. Lack of schools, hospitals and other amenities.
4. Social discrimination, conflict, insecurity, political instability.
5. Natural disasters: earthquakes, cyclones, landslides.

Pull factors: conditions at the destination that attract people.
1. Jobs and higher wages in industry, construction, trade and services.
2. Better education, health care and amenities.
3. Security, social freedom and urban lifestyle.
4. Presence of relatives or people from the same region (migrant networks).

In India, rural-urban migration is driven more by push factors in the countryside (poverty, lack of work) than by the pull of well-paid urban jobs, which is why many migrants end up in the informal sector and in slums.

Worked example

[4] Explain two push factors and two pull factors that cause rural-urban migration in India. (Understand)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Push: poverty and lack of work in villages; small holdings - 1 mark.
2. Push: droughts, floods, crop failure; lack of amenities - 1 mark.
3. Pull: jobs and higher wages in industry, construction and services - 1 mark.
4. Pull: better education, health care and amenities in cities - 1 mark.

Answer: People are pushed out of villages by poverty, small holdings and lack of work, and by droughts, floods and crop failure in areas with few amenities. They are pulled to cities by jobs and higher wages in industry, construction and services, and by better schools, hospitals and amenities.

Types of migration

1. National (internal) migration: movement within the country.

• Intra-state migration ('intra migration'): within the same state, for example from a village in Maharashtra to Pune. It is the largest category in India.
• Inter-state migration ('inter migration'): from one state to another, for example from Bihar or Uttar Pradesh to Delhi, Maharashtra, Punjab or Gujarat.

2. International migration: movement across national borders.

• Emigration from India: skilled professionals to the USA, the UK, Canada and Australia; semi-skilled and unskilled workers to the Gulf countries (the source of large remittances, especially to Kerala).
• Immigration into India: mainly from neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh and Nepal.

Other classifications: by duration (permanent, seasonal, temporary) and by choice (voluntary, forced, such as refugees or people displaced by dams).

Main destination states of inter-state migrants: Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana and Karnataka; main source states: Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

Worked example

[2] Distinguish between inter-state and intra-state migration with an example of each. (Understand)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Intra-state: within the same state, e.g. rural Maharashtra to Mumbai - 1 mark.
2. Inter-state: across state boundaries, e.g. Bihar to Delhi or Punjab - 1 mark.

Answer: Intra-state migration takes place within one state, as when a family moves from a village in Maharashtra to Mumbai. Inter-state migration crosses a state boundary, as when workers from Bihar move to Delhi or Punjab.

Streams of migration

1. Rural-rural: the largest stream in India by numbers. Dominated by women moving after marriage; also agricultural labourers moving to irrigated, prosperous farm regions (for example to Punjab and Haryana at harvest time).
2. Rural-urban: villagers moving to towns and cities for work and amenities. Dominated by men seeking jobs; it drives urbanisation and the growth of slums.
3. Urban-urban: from one town or city to another, usually from smaller to larger cities, for better jobs, higher education and services. It becomes the dominant stream at an advanced stage of urbanisation and economic development.
4. Urban-rural: from towns back to villages. Includes retired people returning home, return of migrants who lost jobs (as during the COVID-19 lockdown of 2020), and some movement to peri-urban areas.

Gender pattern: female migrants outnumber males in most streams because of marriage, but among those moving for work, males dominate, especially in rural-urban and inter-state streams.

Worked example

[4] Name the four streams of internal migration and explain why rural-rural migration is the largest in India. (Analyse)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-urban, urban-rural - 1 mark.
2. Most Indians live in villages, so rural origins dominate - 1 mark.
3. Marriage: women move to the husband's village, usually nearby - 1 mark.
4. Labourers move to irrigated, prosperous farm regions for seasonal work - 1 mark.

Answer: The four streams are rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-urban and urban-rural. Rural-rural is the largest because most Indians live in villages, because women customarily move to their husbands' villages after marriage, usually within the same or a nearby district, and because agricultural labourers move to irrigated, prosperous farming regions for seasonal work.

Causes of migration: natural, economic, political and social

1. Natural causes: droughts, floods, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides and environmental degradation (for example out-migration from drought-prone western Rajasthan or flood-hit north Bihar; people displaced by river erosion in Assam).
2. Economic causes: the most important for male migrants. Search for employment and higher income, industrialisation and urbanisation, unequal regional development, development projects (dams, mines) that displace people.
3. Political causes: Partition (1947) and the 1971 war led to refugee inflows; conflict and insurgency; government policies (resettlement schemes, transfer of employees).
4. Social causes: marriage (the main reason for female migration), joining the family, education, health care, social discrimination, and the presence of kin networks at the destination.

Why out-migration rates differ between states: regional inequality in industrial development and jobs (high from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, low from Maharashtra), dependence on rain-fed farming, exposure to floods or droughts, and lack of facilities.

Consequences: in-migration areas face overcrowding, slums, unemployment, pressure on water, sanitation and transport, and pollution; source areas gain remittances and skills but lose young adults, leaving women, children and the elderly.

Worked example

[4] Explain one natural, one economic, one political and one social cause of migration in India with an example of each. (Understand)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Natural: floods or droughts, e.g. out-migration from flood-prone north Bihar - 1 mark.
2. Economic: jobs and higher wages, e.g. migration to Mumbai or Surat - 1 mark.
3. Political: Partition or conflict, e.g. refugees into Punjab and West Bengal - 1 mark.
4. Social: marriage, e.g. women moving to their husbands' villages - 1 mark.

Answer: Natural: floods and droughts force people out, as from flood-prone north Bihar. Economic: the search for jobs and higher wages takes people to industrial cities such as Mumbai and Surat. Political: Partition in 1947 sent millions of refugees into Punjab, Delhi and West Bengal. Social: marriage moves women to their husbands' villages and is the main reason for female migration.

Migration Trends in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• Types, Streams, Push and Pull Factors and Causes of Migration

Migration Trends: key facts

Net migration

$In-migrants-out-migrants$

Positive = net gain.

Census definitions of migrant

By place of birth; by place of last residence

Two ways of counting.

Types

Internal (intra-state, inter-state) and international

Intra-state is the largest in India.

Streams

$Rural-rural,rural-urban,urban-urban,urban-rural$

Rural-rural largest; urban-urban dominant at an advanced stage.

Causes

$Natural,economic,political,social$

Marriage for women, work for men.

How the board asks Migration Trends

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember Migration Trends

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• Causes 'N-E-P-S'

  Natural, Economic, Political, Social: 'NEPS', like 'next steps' for a migrant.

  Use it when: Four causes.

• Streams square

  Draw a 2 x 2 grid: from rural or urban, to rural or urban. Mark rural-rural 'marriage', rural-urban 'work', urban-urban 'advanced stage', urban-rural 'return'.

  Use it when: Four streams with their main reason.

• Intra stays in, inter goes across

  'Intra' = inside one state; 'inter' = between states.

  Use it when: Types.

Migration Trends: board-level solved questions

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section D style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In the board paper this is a 7-mark question split into 2 + 2 + 1 + 2 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in Migration Trends

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Writing push factors when asked for problems of in-migration

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2024: on problems triggered by migrants in cities, candidates 'Gave push factors instead of problems of in-migration', wrote 'Overlapping, repeated points' and 'Named problems without full explanation'.

  ✓Do this: Problems are effects at the destination (slums, overloaded services, congestion, unemployment); push factors are causes at the origin. Explain each problem in a sentence.

  Usually costs: Up to 4 marks.

• ✗Mistake: One-word factors and repetition across parts

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2024: on the factors that determine migrants' movement, candidates 'Gave one-word factors without explanation' and 'Repeated the answer to part (i)'.

  ✓Do this: Write 'Availability of jobs and higher wages in industry and services attracts migrants', not just 'jobs'. Keep causes and effects in separate parts.

  Usually costs: 1 mark per point.

• ✗Mistake: Not naming the type of migration on a map

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2025: on a sketch map of migration, 'Many were unable to identify the type of migration'; teachers were advised to explain intra-state versus inter-state movement.

  ✓Do this: Look at the boundaries the arrows cross: within a state = intra-state; between states = inter-state; between countries = international.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Treating commuting or tourism as migration

  Migration involves a change of usual residence.

  ✓Do this: Check whether the person settles at the new place.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

Practice questions on Migration Trends

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · Very short answerBoard level

   What are pull factors of migration?

   Hint

   At the destination.

   Answer

   Attractive conditions at the destination, such as jobs, higher wages and better amenities, that draw people there.

2. Q2 · 1 mark · Very short answerBoard level

   What is the main reason for female migration in India?

   Hint

   A social cause.

   Answer

   Marriage.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · Very short answerBoard level

   Give one example of urban-rural migration.

   Hint

   Retirement or return.

   Answer

   Retired people returning to their native villages (or migrants returning home after losing urban jobs).

4. Q4 · 1 mark · Very short answerHarder board level

   Classify: a nurse from Kerala takes a job in Dubai.

   Hint

   Crosses a national border.

   Answer

   International migration (emigration from India), for an economic cause.

5. Q5 · 2 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   [2] Why are men more numerous than women among inter-state, rural-urban migrants?

   Hint

   Reason for moving.

   Answer

   These migrants move mainly for work, and men are usually the ones who travel long distances for jobs, often leaving families behind because of high urban living costs; women migrate mainly over short distances for marriage.

6. Q6 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   [4] Explain four consequences of out-migration for the source region.

   Hint

   Remittances, labour, demography, skills.

   Answer

   (1) Remittances raise household incomes and fund education and housing. (2) Shortage of young labour on farms. (3) An imbalanced population: more women, children and elderly; extra burden on women. (4) Returning migrants bring new skills and ideas, though the region may also lose its most educated people.

7. Q7 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   [4] Explain why urban-urban migration dominates at an advanced stage of migration.

   Hint

   Most people are already urban.

   Answer

   (1) At an advanced stage most people already live in towns, so moves begin in towns. (2) Development and better-paid jobs concentrate in larger cities, in industry, services and business. (3) Superior transport, health, education and communication in big cities attract people from smaller towns. (4) Recreation and amenities also draw city-dwellers to larger cities.

8. Q8 · 7 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

   [7] (a) Distinguish between push and pull factors with two examples each. [4]
   (b) Explain how step-wise migration helps a rural migrant adjust to city life. [3]

   Hint

   (b) skills, savings, contacts.

   Answer

   (a) Push factors are adverse conditions at the origin that force people out, such as poverty and unemployment, and droughts or floods. Pull factors are attractions at the destination, such as jobs and higher wages, and better schools and hospitals. (b) Moving first to a small town lets the migrant learn urban skills and work habits, build savings, and make contacts and networks that help in finding work and housing in the next, larger city; the change at each step is smaller, so adjustment is easier.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.What is step-wise migration?Show answer

   Migration in stages from smaller to larger places.

2. 2.Largest migration stream in India?Show answer

   Rural-rural.

3. 3.Main cause of male migration?Show answer

   Work and employment (economic).

4. 4.Two ways the census counts migrants?Show answer

   By place of birth and by place of last residence.

5. 5.Dominant stream at an advanced stage?Show answer

   Urban-urban.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Migration: change of usual residence across a boundary.
• ☐Step-wise: village, town, city, metropolis.
• ☐Push (origin): poverty, unemployment, disasters, conflict. Pull (destination): jobs, wages, amenities.
• ☐Types: intra-state (largest), inter-state, international.
• ☐Streams: rural-rural (largest, marriage), rural-urban (work), urban-urban (advanced stage), urban-rural (return).
• ☐Causes: natural, economic, political, social (N-E-P-S).
• ☐Effects at destination: slums, overloaded services, congestion, pollution, unemployment.

Migration Trends: frequently asked questions