Land Resources and Land Use Pattern in India: ISC Class 12 Geography

What Land Resources is about

Weightage: CISCE publishes no chapter or unit weightage for ISC Geography. Land Resources is part of 3. Resources of India and their Utilisation (ii) of the 2027 syllabus and can be asked anywhere in the 70-mark Paper I (Section A one-mark and map items, Section B 4-mark short answers, Section C 7-mark long answers).Source: CISCE ISC Geography (853) syllabus, examination year 2027; ISC 2027 specimen question paper

Key concepts

Land as a resource: importance and problems

Land resource: the land surface with its soil, relief, water and vegetation, which people use for farming, forestry, grazing, settlement, industry, transport and recreation.

Importance in India:
1. Agriculture, which employs about half of India's workers, depends directly on land.
2. It provides food, fodder, fibre, fuel and raw materials.
3. It is the base for settlements, industries and infrastructure.
4. Land ownership is a key source of income, security and social status in rural India.
5. Forests and grasslands on land maintain ecological balance.

Problems:
1. Fixed supply with rising population: land per person keeps falling.
2. Land degradation: soil erosion (gullies, ravines of the Chambal), salinity and alkalinity, waterlogging from over-irrigation, desertification in the north-west, mining damage.
3. Diversion of fertile farmland to urban, industrial and transport uses.
4. Small and fragmented holdings.
5. Unequal ownership and landlessness.
6. Over-grazing and encroachment on common land and forests.

Worked example

[4] Explain the importance of land as a resource in India and two problems it faces. (Understand)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Importance: basis of agriculture, which employs about half the workforce and supplies food and raw materials - 1 mark.
2. Importance: base for settlements, industries and infrastructure; source of security and status - 1 mark.
3. Problem: degradation by erosion, salinity, waterlogging and desertification - 1 mark.
4. Problem: falling land per person and diversion of farmland to non-agricultural uses; small holdings - 1 mark.

Answer: Land is the basis of agriculture, which employs about half of India's workers and supplies food, fodder and raw materials, and it is the base for settlements, industries and infrastructure, as well as a source of security and status. But it is degraded by erosion, salinity, waterlogging and desertification, and as population grows, land per person falls while fertile farmland is lost to towns, industries and roads.

Land use categories

India's land records classify the reporting area into these categories (approximate recent shares of reporting area in brackets):

1. Forests (about 23 per cent): land classed as forest by law, whether wooded or not.
2. Land not available for cultivation (about 14 per cent):
(a) area under non-agricultural uses: buildings, roads, railways, canals, water bodies;
(b) barren and unculturable land: mountains, deserts, rocky land that cannot be cultivated at reasonable cost.
3. Permanent pastures and other grazing land (about 3-4 per cent): mostly village commons and panchayat land.
4. Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves (about 1 per cent): bamboo, casuarina, fruit groves not included in net sown area.
5. Culturable (cultivable) waste land (about 4 per cent): land that was cultivated in the past or could be cultivated, but has been left uncultivated for more than five years (because of salinity, waterlogging, ravines, lack of water or ownership disputes); it can be reclaimed.
6. Fallow land (about 8 per cent):
(a) current fallow: left uncultivated for one year or less, to regain fertility;
(b) fallow other than current (old fallow): left uncultivated for more than one year but less than five years.
7. Net sown area (about 45 per cent): area actually sown with crops at least once in the agricultural year, counted only once.

Area sown more than once = gross cropped area - net sown area.
Gross cropped area: total area sown, counting land as many times as it is sown in the year (about 210-220 million hectares in recent years).
Cropping intensity = gross cropped area / net sown area x 100 (about 155 per cent for India in 2021-22, up from about 140 per cent a decade earlier; highest in Punjab and Haryana).

Worked example

[2] Distinguish between current fallow and culturable waste land. (Analyse)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Current fallow: left uncultivated for one year or less, usually to regain fertility - 1 mark.
2. Culturable waste: cultivable land left uncultivated for more than five years, though it could be reclaimed - 1 mark.

Answer: Current fallow is land left uncultivated for one year or less, usually to let the soil regain fertility. Culturable waste is land that could be cultivated but has not been for more than five years, often because of salinity, waterlogging, erosion or lack of water; it can be reclaimed with effort.

Net sown area, area sown more than once and trends

Net sown area (NSA) has stayed around 140 million hectares for decades: there is little new land left to bring under the plough. Increases in production have therefore come from raising yields and from sowing the same land more than once.

Area sown more than once has grown with irrigation, high-yielding short-duration varieties, fertilisers and mechanisation, especially in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.

Regional pattern of NSA: highest proportions in Punjab and Haryana (over 80 per cent of area), the Ganga plain and the black-soil Deccan; lowest in the Himalayan and north-eastern hill states, where forests dominate, and in the desert.

Recent trends in land use:
1. Area under non-agricultural uses is rising (urbanisation, industry, roads).
2. Forest area has increased slightly through afforestation and better records.
3. Permanent pastures and culturable waste are declining as they are encroached upon or converted.
4. Current fallow fluctuates with rainfall; it rises in drought years.

Quality of cultivable land: the best land is the deep alluvium of the northern plains and deltas and the black soil of the Deccan; much other land suffers from low fertility, poor moisture, erosion, salinity or acidity, which limits yields.

Worked example

[2] Why has net sown area remained nearly constant while agricultural output has grown? (Analyse)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Almost all land that can be cultivated is already in use; non-agricultural uses take some away - 1 mark.
2. Output grew through higher yields and multiple cropping (more area sown more than once) with irrigation, HYV seeds and fertilisers - 1 mark.

Answer: Almost all cultivable land is already in use and some is lost to non-agricultural uses, so net sown area cannot expand much. Output has grown because yields rose and the same land is sown more than once a year, thanks to irrigation, high-yielding seeds and fertilisers.

Size of holdings and fragmentation

Operational holding: all land used wholly or partly for agricultural production and operated as one unit by one person or with others.

Size classes (Agricultural Census): marginal (less than 1 ha), small (1-2 ha), semi-medium (2-4 ha), medium (4-10 ha), large (10 ha and above).

Agricultural Census 2015-16: average holding about 1.08 ha; marginal holdings about 68 per cent of all holdings and small about 18 per cent, so about 86 per cent of holdings are below 2 ha, while large holdings are well under 1 per cent of holdings. The average has been falling with every census (2.3 ha in 1970-71).

Subdivision: holdings becoming smaller as land is divided among heirs.
Fragmentation: a holding scattered in several separate, small plots at different places in the village.

Causes: laws of inheritance dividing land equally among sons (and daughters); population growth; decline of joint families; sale or mortgage of parts of land due to debt; desire of each heir for a share of every quality of land.

Why fragmentation lowers productivity:
1. Time and labour are wasted moving seeds, manure, tools and cattle between scattered plots.
2. Irrigation is difficult: wells and channels cannot serve scattered plots efficiently.
3. Fertile land is wasted on boundaries and paths; boundary disputes arise.
4. Modern machinery (tractors, harvesters) cannot be used efficiently on tiny plots.
5. Supervision and protection of crops are harder; investment in land improvement is discouraged.

Worked example

[2] How does the scattering of a farm into many small plots reduce its output? Give two ways. (Analyse)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Labour and time wasted moving seeds, manure, tools and cattle between scattered plots - 1 mark.
2. Difficulty in irrigation and in using machinery; land wasted in boundaries - 1 mark.

Answer: Farmers waste labour and time carrying seeds, manure, tools and cattle between scattered plots, and it is difficult to irrigate small separate plots or use tractors and harvesters on them, while much fertile land is lost to boundaries.

Methods to reduce fragmentation

1. Consolidation of holdings (chakbandi): scattered plots of a farmer are exchanged and regrouped into one or two compact blocks of equivalent value. Most successful in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, where it supported the Green Revolution.
2. Cooperative farming: small farmers pool land, labour and resources and cultivate jointly, gaining economies of scale.
3. Laws to prevent further subdivision: fixing a minimum economic size of holding below which land cannot be divided; heirs may compensate one another instead of dividing plots.
4. Land ceiling and redistribution of surplus land to the landless and marginal farmers.
5. Land records modernisation (digitisation) to reduce disputes and allow leasing.
6. Legal and secure land leasing, so that small owners can lease land to others and holdings are operated as larger units.
7. Group farming through farmer producer organisations (FPOs) and custom hiring centres for machinery.
8. Creating non-farm jobs so that fewer people depend on small plots.

Worked example

[4] Suggest four methods to reduce the fragmentation of land holdings in India. (Create)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Consolidation of holdings (chakbandi) into compact blocks - 1 mark.
2. Cooperative farming by pooling small holdings - 1 mark.
3. Laws fixing a minimum size below which holdings cannot be divided - 1 mark.
4. Modern land records and legal leasing; non-farm employment - 1 mark.

Answer: Scattered plots can be regrouped into compact blocks through consolidation of holdings, as done in Punjab and Haryana; small farmers can pool land through cooperative farming; laws can fix a minimum economic holding below which land cannot be subdivided; and digitised land records, legal leasing and non-farm jobs can allow land to be operated in larger units.

Land Resources in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• Land Use Categories, Land Holdings and Fragmentation

Land Resources: key facts

Area sown more than once

Gross cropped area - net sown area

Rises with irrigation.

Cropping intensity

Gross cropped area / net sown area x 100

India about 155 per cent (2021-22).

Fallow periods

$Currentfallow<=1year;otherfallow1-5years;culturablewaste>5years$

Most-tested distinction.

Holding size classes

$Marginal<1ha;small1-2;semi-medium2-4;medium4-10;large>=10$

Average about 1.08 ha (2015-16).

Approximate land use shares

NSA about 45%; forests about 23%; not available for cultivation about 14%; fallow about 8%; culturable waste about 4%

Of reporting area.

How the board asks Land Resources

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember Land Resources

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• 1-5-plus

  Fallow = up to 5 years (current up to 1); waste = over 5 years.

  Use it when: Fallow versus culturable waste.

• Fragmentation costs 'T-I-B-M'

  Time wasted, Irrigation hard, Boundaries waste land, Machines cannot be used.

  Use it when: Why fragmentation lowers yield.

• Remedies 'C-C-L-L'

  Consolidation, Cooperatives, Laws on minimum size, Land records and leasing.

  Use it when: Methods to reduce fragmentation.

Land Resources: board-level solved questions

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section D style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In the board paper this is a 7-mark question split into 2 + 1 + 2 + 2 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in Land Resources

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Writing culturable waste for fallow land

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2024: for land left uncultivated for one to five years, candidates 'Wrote culturable waste instead of fallow land'; teachers were advised to stress the distinguishing features of each land use type.

  ✓Do this: Fallow = up to five years (current up to one); culturable waste = more than five years.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Listing land use types instead of reasons

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2024: on why cultivable land gave no crop, candidates 'Listed land use patterns instead of reasons for no yield', 'Repeated one reason in different words (poor soil, low fertility, infertile soil)' and 'Gave only one reason'.

  ✓Do this: Give different causes: water shortage, salinity or alkalinity, erosion or waterlogging, faulty practices, unfavourable terrain.

  Usually costs: Up to 2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Explaining the cause of fragmentation when asked for its effect

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2024: on why fragmentation lowers productivity, candidates 'Explained fragmentation due to the law of inheritance instead of how it lowers yield'.

  ✓Do this: Effects: wasted time and labour, irrigation difficulty, land lost to boundaries, no mechanisation.

  Usually costs: Up to 2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Confusing net sown area with gross cropped area

  NSA counts land once; GCA counts it each time it is sown.

  ✓Do this: Area sown more than once = GCA - NSA.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

Practice questions on Land Resources

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · Very short answerBoard level

   What is net sown area?

   Hint

   Counted once.

   Answer

   The area sown with crops at least once in an agricultural year, counted only once.

2. Q2 · 1 mark · Very short answerBoard level

   What is the minimum size of a 'large' holding in the Agricultural Census?

   Hint

   Double digits.

   Answer

   10 hectares.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · Very short answerBoard level

   Name the process of regrouping scattered plots into compact blocks.

   Hint

   Chakbandi.

   Answer

   Consolidation of holdings.

4. Q4 · 1 mark · Very short answerHarder board level

   Distinguish between subdivision and fragmentation of holdings.

   Hint

   Smaller versus scattered.

   Answer

   Subdivision makes holdings smaller by dividing them among heirs; fragmentation means one holding is scattered in separate plots.

5. Q5 · 2 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   [2] Why are permanent pastures shrinking in India?

   Hint

   Pressure on commons.

   Answer

   Village commons are encroached upon or converted to farmland and buildings because of population pressure, and they are degraded by over-grazing.

6. Q6 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   [4] Explain four causes of land degradation in India.

   Hint

   Water, wind, irrigation, mining.

   Answer

   (1) Soil erosion by water on slopes and in ravines such as the Chambal. (2) Wind erosion and desertification in western Rajasthan. (3) Salinity, alkalinity and waterlogging from over-irrigation in Punjab, Haryana and canal command areas. (4) Mining, deforestation and over-grazing that strip vegetation and soil.

7. Q7 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   [4] 'Land reforms are as important as technology for raising farm productivity.' Discuss.

   Hint

   Consolidation, ceiling, tenancy.

   Answer

   Technology such as HYV seeds and irrigation raises yields only where farmers can use it. Consolidation makes irrigation and machinery feasible; ceilings and redistribution give landless people land to invest in; secure tenancy and clear records encourage investment and access to credit. Where reforms succeeded (Punjab, West Bengal's Operation Barga), productivity rose. So reforms and technology work together.

8. Q8 · 7 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

   [7] (a) Explain four reasons why fragmentation of holdings lowers productivity. [4]
   (b) Suggest three methods to reduce it. [3]

   Hint

   T-I-B-M; C-C-L.

   Answer

   (a) Time and labour are wasted moving seeds, manure, tools and cattle between plots; scattered plots are hard to irrigate; fertile land is wasted on boundaries and disputes arise; and machines cannot be used efficiently on tiny plots, so investment is discouraged. (b) Consolidation of holdings into compact blocks; cooperative or group farming; laws fixing a minimum economic size below which holdings cannot be divided, supported by digitised records and legal leasing.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.Approximate share of net sown area?Show answer

   About 45 per cent of reporting area.

2. 2.Culturable waste: unused for how long?Show answer

   More than five years.

3. 3.Cropping intensity formula?Show answer

   Gross cropped area / net sown area x 100.

4. 4.Average size of holding (2015-16)?Show answer

   About 1.08 ha.

5. 5.Marginal holding size?Show answer

   Less than 1 hectare.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Land use: NSA about 45%, forest about 23%, not available about 14%, fallow about 8%, culturable waste about 4%, pastures about 3-4%.
• ☐Current fallow <= 1 yr; other fallow 1-5 yrs; culturable waste > 5 yrs.
• ☐Area sown more than once = GCA - NSA; cropping intensity = GCA/NSA x 100.
• ☐Holdings: marginal < 1 ha (about 68%); average about 1.08 ha (2015-16).
• ☐Fragmentation lowers yield: time, irrigation, boundaries, machines.
• ☐Remedies: consolidation, cooperatives, minimum-size laws, records and leasing.

Land Resources: frequently asked questions