Globalisation, Class 12 Political Science

What Globalisation is about

Weightage: Contemporary World Politics: Globalisation carries 4 of the 80 theory marks.Source: CBSE Political Science (028) syllabus 2026-27, course structure

Key concepts

The concept of globalisation

NCERT section The Concept of Globalisation

Three examples from the textbook:

• Janardhan works nights in a call centre, becomes 'John', speaks with an accent and follows his US clients' holidays: globalisation of services.
• Ramdhari buys a cycle made in China and earlier a doll made in the US: movement of commodities.
• Sarika, a first-generation learner, takes up a career despite relatives' opposition: a conflict of values arising from new opportunities.

Not always positive or economic: farmers who bought costly MNC seeds and whose crops failed; an Indian company buying a European rival (influence need not flow from rich to poor); retailers fearing international chains; a film accused of copying Hollywood; a militant group threatening girls in Western clothes.

Definition: globalisation fundamentally deals with flows:
1. Ideas moving across the world.
2. Capital moved between places.
3. Commodities traded across borders.
4. People moving for better livelihoods.
The crucial element is 'worldwide interconnectedness' created and sustained by these constant flows.

Features: multi-dimensional (political, economic, cultural, not purely one), and uneven in impact: it affects some societies, and some parts of societies, more than others, so conclusions must consider specific contexts.

Worked example

What is worldwide interconnectedness? What are its components? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Worldwide interconnectedness is the linking of different parts of the world created and sustained by constant flows across borders; it is the crucial element of globalisation.
2. Its components are flows of ideas, capital, commodities and people.

Answer: Global linkage created by flows of ideas, capital, commodities and people.

Causes of globalisation

NCERT section Causes of Globalisation

Is it new? Flows of ideas, capital, commodities and people have occurred through much of history. What is distinct today is the scale and speed of these flows. Globalisation has a strong historical basis.

Technology: a critical element (not the only cause):

• The telegraph, telephone and, more recently, the microchip revolutionised communication across the world.
• Just as printing laid the basis for nationalism, today's technology will shape how we think of personal and collective lives.
• Technology lets ideas, capital, commodities and people move more easily; but pace varies: capital and commodities move faster and wider than people.

Recognition of interconnections: better communication alone is not enough; people must recognise their links with the rest of the world. Events in one place affect others: bird flu or a tsunami does not respect national borders, and major economic events have global impact.

Worked example

How has technology contributed to globalisation? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Inventions like the telegraph, telephone and microchip revolutionised communication, letting ideas, capital, commodities and people move more easily across the world.
2. This increased the scale and speed of flows that make contemporary globalisation distinct, and helps people recognise their interconnections with the rest of the world.

Answer: By revolutionising communication, technology increased the scale and speed of global flows.

Political consequences

NCERT section Political Consequences

How does globalisation affect state sovereignty? Three aspects:

1. Erosion of state capacity:

• The old welfare state gives way to a minimalist state that keeps core functions (law and order, security) but withdraws from many economic and social welfare functions.
• The market becomes the prime determinant of economic and social priorities.
• The entry and growing role of MNCs reduces governments' capacity to decide on their own.

2. State primacy continues:

• The state remains the unchallenged basis of political community; old rivalries between countries still matter.
• The state still performs essential functions and chooses to withdraw from certain areas.

3. State capacity boosted:

• New technologies help the state collect information about citizens, so it is better able to rule; in some respects states become more powerful.

Worked example

Does globalisation weaken the state? Explain. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. In one sense yes: the welfare state is giving way to a minimalist state focused on law and order and security, withdrawing from welfare functions.
2. The market sets economic and social priorities, and MNCs reduce governments' ability to take decisions independently.
3. But the state remains the unchallenged basis of political community, still performing essential functions and withdrawing only where it chooses.
4. New technologies even strengthen the state by letting it collect information about citizens, so it may rule more effectively.

Answer: Globalisation erodes some state capacity but the state remains central and can even become more powerful through technology.

Economic consequences

NCERT section Economic Consequences

Beyond IMF and WTO: economic globalisation is often linked to the IMF and WTO, but it involves many other actors. A broader view asks about the distribution of gains: who gains most, who gains less, and who loses.

Greater economic flows (some voluntary, some forced by international institutions and powerful countries):

• Commodities: import restrictions reduced; more trade.
• Capital: restrictions on capital movement reduced; investors in rich countries can invest in developing countries for better returns.
• Ideas: spread of the internet and computer services.
• People: not to the same degree; developed countries guard borders with visa policies to protect their citizens' jobs.

Same policies, different outcomes: governments adopted similar policies, but outcomes differ widely; attend to context.

The debate:

• Critics (social justice): worried about state withdrawal; benefits go to a small section while those dependent on government jobs and welfare (education, health, sanitation) become poorer. They demand 'social safety nets'. Many movements think safety nets are insufficient and call for a halt to forced globalisation; some economists call it re-colonisation.
• Advocates: de-regulation brings more growth and well-being; trade lets each economy do what it does best; globalisation is inevitable.
• Moderates: respond to globalisation intelligently without accepting it uncritically.
• Undeniable: greater interdependence and integration among governments, businesses and people.

Worked example

Why has the movement of people not increased as much as the movement of goods and capital? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Restrictions on imports and capital movement have been reduced, so goods and capital flow freely.
2. But developed countries guard their borders through visa policies so that citizens of other countries cannot take away their own citizens' jobs.

Answer: Because developed countries restrict migration through visa policies to protect jobs.

Cultural consequences

NCERT section Cultural Consequences

Globalisation affects what we eat, drink, wear and think, and shapes our preferences.

Cultural homogenisation (the fear):

• Globalisation may produce a uniform culture, which is not a true global culture but the imposition of Western culture on the world: the soft power of US hegemony.
• The popularity of burgers or blue jeans reflects the pull of the American way of life; the dominant society leaves its imprint on less powerful ones.
• 'McDonaldisation' of the world: cultures buying into the American dream.
• Dangerous for all humanity because it shrinks the rich cultural heritage of the globe.

But not only negative:

• Cultures are not static; all absorb outside influences.
• Some influences reduce choices; others enlarge them or modify culture without overwhelming tradition: the burger is no substitute for a masala dosa, just an added choice.
• Blue jeans with a khadi kurta creates a new, unique combination, even exported back to the US.

Cultural heterogenisation: the same process makes each culture more different and distinctive. Power differences remain, but cultural exchange is rarely one way.

Worked example

Distinguish between cultural homogenisation and cultural heterogenisation. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Cultural homogenisation is the rise of a uniform culture, which is really the imposition of Western (American) culture on others, the soft power of US hegemony.
2. Example: McDonaldisation; burgers and blue jeans spreading worldwide, shrinking cultural diversity.
3. Cultural heterogenisation is the opposite effect: interaction makes each culture more different and distinctive.
4. Example: a khadi kurta worn over jeans, a new combination even exported back to the US; exchange is rarely one way.

Answer: Homogenisation makes cultures uniform (Westernised); heterogenisation creates new, distinctive mixes.

India and globalisation

NCERT section India and Globalisation

Long history: flows of capital, commodities, ideas and people go back several centuries in Indian history.

Colonial period: Britain's imperial ambitions turned India into a supplier of raw materials and primary goods and a buyer of finished goods made elsewhere.

After independence: protectionism:

• India decided to make things itself and not allow others to export to it, so domestic producers could learn.
• Problems: some advances, but health, housing and primary education were neglected, and growth was sluggish.

1991 reforms:

• Responding to a financial crisis and wanting higher growth, India began economic reforms to de-regulate sectors including trade and foreign investment.
• The ultimate test is not high growth but ensuring the benefits are shared so that everyone is better off.

India affects globalisation too: Indian services (call centres, as in Janardhan's case) serve the world, and an Indian company buying a European rival shows influence can flow from developing to developed countries. The 'Gosh, an Indian again!' box shows both the opportunities and the hostility call-centre workers can face.

Worked example

Trace India's economic policy from independence to 1991 in the context of globalisation. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Colonial experience: India exported raw materials and consumed British finished goods.
2. After independence India chose protectionism: making things itself and restricting imports so domestic producers could learn.
3. This led to some advances but neglect of health, housing and primary education, and sluggish growth.
4. In 1991, facing a financial crisis and seeking faster growth, India began reforms de-regulating trade and foreign investment; the real test is whether growth benefits are shared.

Answer: From colonial dependence to protectionism to 1991 liberalisation, judged by whether benefits are widely shared.

Resistance to globalisation

NCERT section Resistance to Globalisation; India and Resistance to Globalisation

Critiques:

• Left: today's globalisation is a stage of global capitalism in which a shrinking group of rich people gain while the poor lose further; a weaker state cannot protect the poor.
• Right: fears political weakening of the state; wants a return to self-reliance and protectionism in some areas; worries that traditional culture and age-old values will be harmed.

Nature of anti-globalisation movements: they too use global networks, allying with like-minded groups abroad. Many oppose not globalisation itself but a specific programme of globalisation that they see as imperialism.

Global examples:

• Seattle, 1999: widespread protests at the WTO Ministerial Meeting against unfair trading practices of powerful states; developing countries' interests were not given enough importance.
• World Social Forum (WSF): a coalition of human rights activists, environmentalists, labour, youth and women activists opposed to neo-liberal globalisation. First meeting Porto Alegre, Brazil, 2001; fourth in Mumbai, 2004; the latest (per the textbook) in Nepal, February 2024.

Resistance in India:

• Left-wing protests against liberalisation through parties and forums like the Indian Social Forum.
• Trade unions of industrial workers and farmers' organisations protested against the entry of MNCs.
• Opposition to patenting of plants like Neem by American and European firms.
• Political right: objections to cultural influences such as foreign TV channels on cable, celebration of Valentine's Day, and Westernised dress of girl students.

Worked example

Describe the resistance to globalisation in India. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Left-wing protests against economic liberalisation through political parties and forums like the Indian Social Forum.
2. Trade unions of industrial workers and farmers' organisations protested against the entry of multinationals.
3. Patenting of plants like Neem by American and European firms generated strong opposition.
4. The political right objected to cultural influences: foreign TV channels, Valentine's Day celebrations and Westernised dress of girl students.

Answer: Resistance came from the left, trade unions and farmers, opponents of plant patents, and the right on cultural grounds.

Globalisation in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• Concept and Causes of Globalisation
• Economic Consequences of Globalisation
• Cultural Consequences of Globalisation

Globalisation: key facts

Definition

Globalisation = flows of ideas + capital + commodities + people creating worldwide interconnectedness

Multi-dimensional and uneven.

Textbook examples

Janardhan (services), Ramdhari (commodities), Sarika (conflict of values)

Influence not always rich to poor.

What is new

Scale and speed of flows; technology (telegraph, telephone, microchip)

Capital and commodities move faster than people.

Political consequences

Erosion of capacity (minimalist state, market, MNCs) vs continued primacy vs boost through technology

Three aspects.

Economic consequences

More flows of goods, capital, ideas; limited flow of people (visa policies)

Same policies, different outcomes.

Economic debate

Critics: safety nets, re-colonisation; advocates: growth, inevitability; moderates: intelligent response

Interdependence undeniable.

Cultural consequences

Homogenisation (McDonaldisation, US soft power) vs heterogenisation (khadi kurta with jeans)

Exchange rarely one way.

India

Colonial raw-material exporter; protectionism after 1947; reforms in 1991 (financial crisis, de-regulation)

Test: benefits shared.

Resistance events

Seattle WTO protests 1999; WSF Porto Alegre 2001, Mumbai 2004, Nepal Feb 2024

WSF opposes neo-liberal globalisation.

Resistance in India

Left and Indian Social Forum; trade unions and farmers vs MNCs; Neem patent; right on culture

Both left and right.

How the board asks Globalisation

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember Globalisation

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• Four flows

  "ICCP": Ideas, Capital, Commodities, People.

  Use it when: Defining globalisation.

• Political consequences

  "Erode, Endure, Empower": state capacity eroded, state primacy endures, technology empowers.

  Use it when: Three aspects.

• Cultural effects

  "Homo = same, Hetero = different".

  Use it when: Cultural consequences.

• Resistance timeline

  "Seattle 99, Porto 01, Mumbai 04".

  Use it when: Resistance events.

Globalisation: board-level solved questions

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section E style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In the board paper this is a 4-mark question split into 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in Globalisation

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Writing that globalisation began in 1991

  1991 is India's reform year.

  ✓Do this: Flows have a long history; 1991 marks India's economic reforms.

  Usually costs: 1 mark in statement MCQs.

• ✗Mistake: Equating globalisation with Westernisation

  Homogenisation fears.

  ✓Do this: Globalisation is multi-dimensional; heterogenisation shows influence flows both ways.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Discussing only economic aspects

  Economic debates dominate.

  ✓Do this: Cover political, economic and cultural dimensions.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks in 4-mark answers.

• ✗Mistake: Saying globalisation only weakens the state

  One-sided reading.

  ✓Do this: Give all three aspects: erosion, continued primacy, technological boost.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Mixing up Seattle and WSF dates

  Several resistance events.

  ✓Do this: Seattle WTO 1999; WSF Porto Alegre 2001, Mumbai 2004, Nepal 2024.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

NCERT exercise guide: Globalisation

What each exercise in the NCERT chapter tests, how to approach it, and a question of the same kind solved step by step. Questions here are written in our own words.

Practice questions on Globalisation

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

   Which statement about the causes of globalisation is TRUE?
   (a) Technology is an important cause.
   (b) It is caused by a particular community.
   (c) It originated in the US.
   (d) Economic interdependence alone causes it.

   Hint

   Critical element.

   Answer

   (a).

2. Q2 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

   The fourth World Social Forum meeting was held in:
   (a) Porto Alegre
   (b) Mumbai
   (c) Seattle
   (d) Kathmandu

   Hint

   2004.

   Answer

   (b) Mumbai, 2004.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

   Assertion (A): Globalisation has led to a smaller increase in the movement of people than in commodities and capital.
   Reason (R): Developed countries guard their borders with visa policies.
   Choose (a)-(d).

   Hint

   Jobs.

   Answer

   (a) Both are true and R explains A.

4. Q4 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

   What is meant by 'McDonaldisation'? (2 marks)

   Hint

   Homogenisation.

   Answer

   The spread of a uniform, American-influenced culture across the world, with cultures buying into the American dream; critics see it as imposition of Western culture through US soft power, shrinking the world's cultural heritage.

5. Q5 · 2 marks · Very short answerHarder board level

   What are 'social safety nets' and why do critics demand them? (2 marks)

   Hint

   State withdrawal.

   Answer

   Institutional safeguards to protect the economically weak from globalisation's negative effects. Critics fear state withdrawal will benefit a few while impoverishing those who depended on government jobs and welfare like education, health and sanitation.

6. Q6 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   Suppose a small town's market fills up with cheap imported toys, and local toy-makers lose customers, while shoppers enjoy lower prices. Using the textbook's debate, explain how a critic and an advocate of globalisation would view this. (4 marks)

   Hint

   Distribution of gains.

   Answer

   A critic would stress the distribution of gains: local producers lose livelihoods, benefits go to a few, and safety nets are needed or forced globalisation should be halted. An advocate would say freer trade lets each economy do what it does best, consumers gain from cheaper goods, and overall growth rises. A moderate would respond intelligently, e.g. helping local makers adapt rather than rejecting trade outright. The textbook notes the same policy produces different outcomes in different contexts.

7. Q7 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   How has globalisation impacted India, and how is India impacting globalisation? (4 marks)

   Hint

   Two directions.

   Answer

   Impact on India: after colonial dependence and post-1947 protectionism with sluggish growth, India began 1991 reforms de-regulating trade and foreign investment; it gained new jobs (call centres) and goods, but faced resistance from the left, trade unions, farmers and the right, and concern over sharing benefits. India's impact: Indian services serve global clients; Indian companies have bought foreign firms; Indian culture influences others (khadi kurta with jeans in the US); and India hosted the World Social Forum in Mumbai (2004), shaping global resistance.

8. Q8 · 2 marks · Very short answerHarder board level

   Why is the impact of globalisation called 'uneven'? (2 marks)

   Hint

   Context.

   Answer

   Because it affects some societies more than others and some parts of a society more than others; similar policies give very different outcomes in different places, so general conclusions must consider specific contexts.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.What is the crucial element of globalisation?Show answer

   Worldwide interconnectedness created and sustained by constant flows.

2. 2.What distinguishes contemporary globalisation from earlier flows?Show answer

   The scale and speed of the flows.

3. 3.What replaces the welfare state under globalisation?Show answer

   A minimalist state performing core functions like law and order and security.

4. 4.What did some economists call economic globalisation?Show answer

   Re-colonisation of the world.

5. 5.What is the 'soft power of US hegemony' in this chapter?Show answer

   The imposition of Western (American) culture on the rest of the world in the name of a global culture.

6. 6.Why did India begin economic reforms in 1991?Show answer

   In response to a financial crisis and a desire for higher economic growth.

7. 7.Which plant's patenting by foreign firms was opposed in India?Show answer

   Neem (among other plants).

8. 8.Name one cultural influence objected to by the political right in India.Show answer

   Any one: foreign TV channels on cable; Valentine's Day celebrations; Westernised dress of girl students.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Can you define globalisation and name its four flows?
• ☐Can you explain why globalisation is multi-dimensional and uneven?
• ☐Can you explain the role of technology?
• ☐Can you give the three political consequences?
• ☐Can you explain why people move less than goods and capital?
• ☐Can you contrast critics, advocates and moderates on economic globalisation?
• ☐Can you distinguish homogenisation and heterogenisation with examples?
• ☐Can you trace India's policy to 1991?
• ☐Can you give left and right critiques of globalisation?
• ☐Can you name the Seattle and WSF events?

Globalisation: frequently asked questions