Contemporary Centres of Power, Class 12 Political Science

What Contemporary Centres of Power is about

Weightage: Contemporary World Politics: Contemporary Centres of Power carries 6 of the 80 theory marks.Source: CBSE Political Science (028) syllabus 2026-27, course structure

Key concepts

The making of the European Union

NCERT section European Union; Timeline of European Integration

The 'Question of Europe' after 1945: should Europe return to old rivalries or rebuild on principles that would support positive international relations? The Second World War had ruined economies and destroyed the assumptions on which Europe had been founded.

Integration aided by the Cold War:

• The US gave massive financial help through the Marshall Plan and created a collective security structure under NATO.
• The Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) (1948) channelled Marshall aid and became a forum for trade and economic cooperation.
• The Council of Europe (1949) advanced political cooperation.
• Economic integration of European capitalist countries proceeded step by step to the European Economic Community (1957), and gained a political side through the European Parliament.
• When the Soviet bloc collapsed, integration speeded up and the European Union was set up in 1992, preparing the ground for a single currency, joint work on justice and home affairs, and a common foreign and security policy.

Timeline: 1951 Treaty of Paris (European Coal and Steel Community: France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg); 25 March 1957 Treaties of Rome (EEC and Euratom); 1973 Denmark, Ireland, UK join; 1979 first direct elections to the European Parliament; 1985 Schengen Agreement abolishes border controls; 1990 German unification; 7 February 1992 Treaty of Maastricht establishes the EU; 2002 euro introduced in 12 members; 2004 ten new members; 2007 Bulgaria and Romania; 2009 Lisbon Treaty; 2012 Nobel Peace Prize; 2013 Croatia the 28th member; 2016 British referendum, 51.9 per cent vote for Brexit.

From economic to political union: the EU increasingly acts like a nation state. Attempts at an EU Constitution have failed, but it has its own flag, anthem, founding date and currency, and some common foreign and security policy. (The flag's circle of twelve gold stars stands for solidarity and harmony; twelve symbolises perfection, completeness and unity.) Expansion has not been easy: people are often reluctant to give the EU powers of their own governments, and there are reservations about some new members.

Schengen: a visa from one EU country allows entry into most other EU countries.

Worked example

How did European countries resolve their post-Second World War problems? Outline the steps that led to the European Union. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. The US Marshall Plan revived Europe's economy and NATO provided collective security; the OEEC (1948) channelled aid and fostered economic cooperation.
2. The Council of Europe (1949) advanced political cooperation; the Treaty of Paris (1951) created the European Coal and Steel Community.
3. The Treaties of Rome (1957) set up the EEC, which gained a political dimension with the European Parliament (direct elections 1979).
4. The collapse of the Soviet bloc speeded integration, and the Treaty of Maastricht (1992) established the EU, with a common foreign and security policy and a single currency (euro, 2002).

Answer: By cooperation backed by the Marshall Plan and NATO, moving through the OEEC, Council of Europe, ECSC and EEC to the EU in 1992.

Why the EU is influential, and its limits

NCERT section European Union (influence)

The EU has economic, political and diplomatic, and military influence.

Economic:

• Its GDP was projected at about 19.35 trillion dollars in 2024.
• Its currency, the euro, can pose a threat to the dominance of the US dollar.
• Its share of world trade is much larger than that of the US, allowing it to be assertive in trade disputes with the US and China.
• Its economic power gives it influence over neighbours and in Asia and Africa; it is an important bloc in the WTO.

Political and diplomatic:

• One member, France, holds a permanent seat on the UN Security Council; the EU includes several non-permanent members. This has let it influence some US policies, such as on Iran's nuclear programme.
• Its use of diplomacy, economic investment and negotiation rather than coercion has been effective, as in its dialogue with China on human rights and environmental degradation.

Military:

• Its combined armed forces are the second largest in the world; its total defence spending is second after the US.
• France has a nuclear arsenal of about 335 warheads.
• It is the world's second most important source of space and communications technology.

Limits:

• As a supranational organisation it can intervene in economic, political and social areas, but members often have their own, conflicting foreign and defence policies. Britain's Tony Blair partnered the US in the Iraq invasion, and many newer members joined the US-led 'coalition of the willing', while Germany and France opposed US policy.
• Euro-scepticism: Margaret Thatcher kept the UK out of the European Market; Denmark and Sweden resisted the Maastricht Treaty and the euro. This limits the EU in foreign relations and defence.
• A 2003 cartoon showed the EU as the Titanic when its constitution initiative failed.

Worked example

What makes the European Union a highly influential regional organisation? (6 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Economic: GDP projected at about 19.35 trillion dollars in 2024; the euro can threaten the dollar's dominance.
2. Economic: a larger share of world trade than the US, giving it assertiveness in trade disputes and influence in neighbourhoods, Asia, Africa and the WTO.
3. Political: France's permanent UNSC seat and several non-permanent members let it influence US policies (Iran's nuclear programme).
4. Diplomatic: effective use of dialogue and investment rather than coercion (dialogue with China on human rights and environment).
5. Military: second largest combined armed forces and defence spending; France's about 335 nuclear warheads; second most important source of space and communications technology.
6. Limits: members' divergent foreign and defence policies and Euro-scepticism; but on balance its economic, diplomatic and military weight makes it highly influential.

Answer: Its economic size and currency, trade weight, UN presence and diplomacy, and military and technological strength make it influential, though divisions limit it.

ASEAN and the ASEAN Way

NCERT section Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)

Background: before and during the Second World War, Southeast Asia suffered repeated European and Japanese colonialism. After the war it faced nation-building, poverty and pressure to align with one great power or another during the Cold War: a recipe for conflict. Efforts at Asian and Third World unity, such as the Bandung Conference and Non-Aligned Movement, did not establish conventions for informal cooperation, so Southeast Asia built its own alternative.

Formation: ASEAN was established in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand through the Bangkok Declaration.

• Primary objective: accelerate economic growth and through it 'social progress and cultural development'.
• Secondary objective: promote regional peace and stability based on the rule of law and the UN Charter.
• Later Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Cambodia joined, making ten members. (The logo's ten stalks of paddy represent the ten countries bound in friendship; the circle symbolises unity.)

The ASEAN Way: unlike the EU, there is little desire for supranational structures. ASEAN has an informal, non-confrontationist and cooperative form of interaction. Respect for national sovereignty is critical to its functioning.

ASEAN Community (2003): moving along the path of the EU, ASEAN agreed to build a community with three pillars:
1. ASEAN Security Community: based on the conviction that territorial disputes should not escalate into armed confrontation; by 2003, agreements to uphold peace, neutrality, cooperation, non-interference and respect for national differences and sovereign rights. The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) (1994) coordinates security and foreign policy.
2. ASEAN Economic Community: create a common market and production base, aid social and economic development, improve the ASEAN Dispute Settlement Mechanism, and build a Free Trade Area for investment, labour and services. The US and China moved fast to negotiate FTAs with ASEAN.
3. ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community.

Worked example

What is the 'ASEAN Way'? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. It is the form of interaction among ASEAN members that is informal, non-confrontationist and cooperative.
2. Unlike the EU, ASEAN has little desire for supranational structures, and respect for national sovereignty is critical to its functioning.

Answer: An informal, non-confrontationist and cooperative style of interaction that respects national sovereignty, without supranational institutions.

ASEAN's growing importance and India

NCERT section ASEAN (continued)

Economic association: ASEAN remains principally economic. Its economy is much smaller than those of the US, EU and Japan but growing much faster, increasing its influence in the region and beyond.

Vision 2020: defines an outward-looking role for ASEAN in the international community, building on its policy of encouraging negotiation over conflicts. ASEAN mediated the end of the Cambodian conflict and the East Timor crisis, and meets annually on East Asian cooperation.

Its real strength: policies of interaction and consultation with members, dialogue partners and non-regional organisations. It is the only regional association in Asia that provides a political forum where Asian countries and major powers can discuss political and security concerns.

India and ASEAN:

• During the Cold War, Indian foreign policy did not pay adequate attention to ASEAN.
• In recent years India has tried to make amends: trade agreements with Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand; the ASEAN-India FTA came into effect in 2010.
• India's 'Look East' Policy (since the early 1990s) and 'Act East' Policy (since 2014) have led to greater economic interaction with East Asian nations (ASEAN, China, Japan and South Korea).
• ASEAN's economic relevance as a trading and investment partner to growing Asian economies such as India and China makes it attractive. (Leaders released postal stamps for the silver jubilee of the India-ASEAN partnership in New Delhi on 25 January 2018.)

Worked example

Name the pillars and objectives of the ASEAN Community. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. ASEAN Security Community: territorial disputes should not escalate into armed confrontation; agreements on peace, neutrality, cooperation, non-interference and respect for sovereignty; ARF coordinates security and foreign policy.
2. ASEAN Economic Community: a common market and production base, social and economic development, a better dispute settlement mechanism.
3. It also aims at a Free Trade Area for investment, labour and services.
4. ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community: the third pillar, agreed in 2003.

Answer: Security, Economic and Socio-Cultural Communities, aiming at peace without armed conflict, a common market and FTA, and social and cultural cooperation.

The rise of the Chinese economy

NCERT section The Rise of the Chinese Economy

China's rise: since the reforms began in 1978, China has been the fastest-growing economy and is projected to overtake the US as the world's largest by 2040. Its integration into the region makes it the driver of East Asian growth. Its economy, population, land mass, resources, location and political influence add to its power.

The command economy (from 1949): after the communist revolution under Mao, the People's Republic of China followed the Soviet model, severing links with the capitalist world and relying on its own resources and briefly on Soviet aid. It built a state-owned heavy industry from capital accumulated from agriculture and used import substitution because it lacked foreign exchange.

• Achievements: foundations of an industrial economy; employment and welfare assured; better education and health than most developing countries; growth of 5-6 per cent.
• Problems: population growth of 2-3 per cent absorbed growth; agriculture could not generate a surplus for industry; industrial growth was slow, trade minimal and per capita income very low.

Reforms:

• 1972: relations established with the United States, ending isolation.
• 1973: Premier Zhou Enlai proposed the 'four modernisations': agriculture, industry, science and technology, and military.
• 1978: leader Deng Xiaoping announced the 'open door' policy and economic reforms, seeking higher productivity through foreign capital and technology.
• China did not adopt shock therapy but opened step by step: privatisation of agriculture (1982), then industry (1998); trade barriers removed only in Special Economic Zones (SEZs); the state kept a central role in building the market economy.
• 2001: accession to the WTO.

Results: privatised agriculture raised production and rural incomes; high rural savings led to exponential growth of rural industry; new trade laws and SEZs led to a phenomenal rise in foreign trade; China became the most important destination for FDI anywhere, with large foreign exchange reserves to invest abroad.

Problems: not everyone benefited: unemployment (nearly 100 million seeking jobs), poor female employment and working conditions, environmental degradation, corruption, and rising inequality between rural and urban residents and coastal and inland provinces.

Influence: economic interdependence tempered disputes with Japan, the US, ASEAN and Russia; China hopes to integrate Taiwan (which it regards as a renegade province) economically; its help to ASEAN economies after the 1997 financial crisis eased fears; its investment and aid in Latin America and Africa project it as a global player on the side of developing economies.

Worked example

In what ways does the present Chinese economy differ from its earlier command economy? (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Earlier: Soviet-style state ownership, heavy industry built from agricultural capital, severed links with the capitalist world. Now: a market economy opened through the 1978 open door policy.
2. Earlier: import substitution and minimal trade. Now: phenomenal growth of foreign trade, SEZs and WTO membership (2001).
3. Earlier: collective agriculture without surplus. Now: privatised agriculture (1982) and industry (1998), raising output and rural industry.
4. Now China is the top destination for FDI with large reserves, though the state still plays a central role, unlike shock therapy.

Answer: From a closed, state-owned, import-substituting economy to a step-by-step opened market economy with privatisation, SEZs, trade and FDI, still guided by the state.

India-China relations

NCERT section India-China Relations

History: before Western imperialism, both were great Asian powers. China influenced its periphery through a tributary system (Mongolia, Korea, parts of Indo-China, Tibet accepted its authority at times); Indian kingdoms also extended influence. But their regions of influence rarely overlapped, so there was limited interaction and little familiarity, which later made policy towards each other difficult.

After independence: hope that both would shape the developing world and Asia; the slogan 'Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai' was briefly popular. But differences arose from the Chinese takeover of Tibet (1950) and the border settlement.

1962: a border conflict over competing claims, mainly in Arunachal Pradesh and the Aksai Chin region of Ladakh. India suffered military reverses; diplomatic relations were downgraded until 1976. After China's leadership changed in the mid-to-late 1970s, its policy became more pragmatic; border talks began in 1981.

Since the end of the Cold War: relations have strategic and economic dimensions; both see themselves as rising powers.

• Rajiv Gandhi's visit to China (December 1988) gave impetus: measures to maintain 'peace and tranquility' on the border; agreements on cultural exchange and science and technology; four border posts opened for trade.
• Trade grew at 30 per cent a year since 1999: from 338 million dollars in 1992 to more than 84 billion dollars in 2017.
• Cooperation in areas that could create conflict, such as bidding for energy deals abroad; similar policies in the WTO.
• India's 1998 nuclear tests, justified on grounds of a threat from China, did not stop interaction. China was seen as helping Pakistan's nuclear programme, and its military relations with Bangladesh and Myanmar were seen as hostile to Indian interests, but boundary talks continued and military cooperation grew; leaders visit more often (Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited China in 2018; President Xi Jinping visited India in 2019).
• Recent downslide: border disputes, the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor, and China's support to Pakistan at the UN against India's counter-terrorism moves.

Worked example

Identify the contentious issues between India and China and suggest how they could be resolved. (6 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. The border dispute, which led to the 1962 conflict over Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin, and recent border disputes.
2. Tibet: differences arising from the Chinese takeover in 1950.
3. China's role in Pakistan's nuclear programme, the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor and support to Pakistan at the UN against India's counter-terrorism moves.
4. China's military relations with Bangladesh and Myanmar, seen as hostile to Indian interests.
5. Resolution: continue uninterrupted boundary talks and border peace measures, build trade and cooperation (energy deals, WTO), increase high-level visits and military-to-military cooperation.
6. Strengthen transport, communication and people-to-people links so the two most populous countries become more familiar with each other.

Answer: Border, Tibet, Pakistan-related issues and regional rivalry; resolution through dialogue, border confidence-building, trade, cooperation and greater familiarity.

Japan and South Korea as emerging powers

NCERT section Boxes: Japan; South Korea

Japan:

• Famous brands (Sony, Panasonic, Canon, Suzuki, Honda, Toyota, Mazda) known for high technology.
• Has very few natural resources and imports most raw materials, yet progressed rapidly after the Second World War.
• Member of the OECD since 1964; in 2017 the third largest economy; the only Asian member of the G-7; the eleventh most populous nation.
• The only nation to suffer nuclear bombs.
• Second largest contributor to the UN's regular budget, almost 10 per cent.
• Security alliance with the US since 1951. Article 9 of its Constitution renounces war as a sovereign right and the use of force to settle disputes. Its military expenditure is only one per cent of GDP, yet the seventh largest in the world.

South Korea:

• The Korean peninsula was divided along the 38th Parallel after the Second World War; the Korean War (1950-53) and the Cold War intensified rivalry; both Koreas joined the UN on 17 September 1991.
• Between the 1960s and 1980s it developed rapidly: the 'Miracle on the Han River'.
• Member of the OECD in 1996; in 2017 the eleventh largest economy and tenth largest military expenditure.
• HDI rank 18 (Human Development Report 2016), due to successful land reforms, rural development, human resource development and rapid, equitable growth, along with export orientation, redistribution policies, public infrastructure, effective institutions and governance.
• Brands such as Samsung, LG and Hyundai are well known in India; many agreements show growing commercial and cultural ties.

Worked example

Why can Japan be considered an emerging centre of power despite having few natural resources? (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. It progressed rapidly after the Second World War and in 2017 was the third largest economy, the only Asian member of the G-7 and an OECD member since 1964.
2. Its high-technology industry and global brands give it economic influence.
3. It is the second largest contributor to the UN regular budget (almost 10 per cent).
4. Though Article 9 renounces war and its military spending is about one per cent of GDP, it is the seventh largest in the world, and it has a security alliance with the US.

Answer: Its economic size, technology, UN contribution and significant military spending make it a centre of power despite limited resources.

Contemporary Centres of Power in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• The European Union
• ASEAN and the ASEAN Way
• Rise of China and India-China Relations

Contemporary Centres of Power: key facts

EU timeline

1948	OEEC
1949	Council of Europe
1951	ECSC (Treaty of Paris)
1957	EEC and Euratom (Treaties of Rome)
1979	first European Parliament elections
1985	Schengen
1992	Maastricht (EU)
2002	euro
2004	ten new members
2009	Lisbon Treaty
2012	Nobel Peace Prize
2013	Croatia 28th
2016	Brexit vote 51.9%

Six founders: France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg.

EU influence

GDP	about 19.35 trillion dollars (2024 projection)
Currency	euro
Trade share	above US
UNSC	France permanent seat
Military	2nd largest armed forces and defence spending
Nuclear	France about 335 warheads

Limits: divergent foreign policies, Euro-scepticism (Thatcher, Denmark, Sweden).

ASEAN founders and members

1967 Bangkok Declaration: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand; later Brunei, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Cambodia = 10

Logo: ten paddy stalks in a circle.

ASEAN objectives

Primary: economic growth, social progress, cultural development; secondary: regional peace and stability (rule of law, UN Charter)

ASEAN Way: informal, non-confrontationist, cooperative.

ASEAN Community (2003)

Security Community + Economic Community + Socio-Cultural Community; ARF 1994

Vision 2020: outward-looking; mediated Cambodia, East Timor.

India and ASEAN

Trade agreements with Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand; ASEAN-India FTA 2010; Look East (early 1990s), Act East (2014)

ASEAN: only Asian forum for political and security dialogue with major powers.

China's reforms

1949	PRC (Soviet model)
1972	ties with US
1973	four modernisations (Zhou Enlai)
1978	open door (Deng Xiaoping)
1982	agriculture privatised
1998	industry privatised, SEZs
2001	WTO

No shock therapy; state central.

Four modernisations

Agriculture, industry, science and technology, military

Proposed 1973.

China's problems

Nearly 100 million unemployed; poor female employment conditions; environment, corruption; rural-urban and coastal-inland inequality

Projected to overtake the US by 2040.

India-China

1950	Tibet
1962	war (Arunachal, Aksai Chin)
Till 1976	relations downgraded
1981	talks
Dec 1988	Rajiv Gandhi visit
Trade	338 million dollars (1992) to 84+ billion (2017)

Recent strains: border, CPEC, UN stance.

Japan

OECD	1964
Economy	3rd largest (2017)
G-7	only Asian member
UN budget	almost 10%
US alliance	1951
Constitution	Article 9
Defence	1% of GDP, 7th largest

Few natural resources.

South Korea

Division	38th Parallel
Korean War	1950-53
UN	17 Sept 1991
Growth	'Miracle on the Han River'
OECD	1996
Rank (2017)	11th economy, 10th military
HDI rank	18 (2016)

Land reforms, equitable growth.

How the board asks Contemporary Centres of Power

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember Contemporary Centres of Power

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• EU milestones

  "Paris-Rome-Maastricht-Lisbon": 1951 ECSC, 1957 EEC, 1992 EU, 2009 Lisbon Treaty.

  Use it when: Chronology MCQs.

• ASEAN founders

  "MIST-P": Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines.

  Use it when: Founding members.

• ASEAN Community pillars

  "SES": Security, Economic, Socio-Cultural.

  Use it when: Pillars question.

• Four modernisations

  "AIMS": Agriculture, Industry, Military, Science and technology.

  Use it when: China's reforms.

• China's privatisation

  Farm first (1982), factory later (1998).

  Use it when: China's gradual path.

Contemporary Centres of Power: board-level solved questions

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section E style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In the board paper this is a 4-mark question split into 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in Contemporary Centres of Power

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Confusing the EEC (1957) and the EU (1992)

  Both are European communities.

  Wrong working

  The European Union was established by the Treaties of Rome in 1957.

  Right working

  The Treaties of Rome (1957) created the EEC; the Treaty of Maastricht (1992) established the EU.

  ✓Do this: Rome = EEC 1957; Maastricht = EU 1992.

  Usually costs: 1 mark in MCQs and chronology.

• ✗Mistake: Describing ASEAN as supranational like the EU

  Both are regional organisations.

  ✓Do this: Stress the ASEAN Way: informal, non-confrontationist, cooperative, with respect for sovereignty and little desire for supranational institutions.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Saying China followed shock therapy

  Both China and Russia moved to markets.

  ✓Do this: China opened step by step with the state central; agriculture 1982, industry 1998, SEZs.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Giving only the positives of China's rise

  Its growth is striking.

  ✓Do this: Add unemployment, poor women's working conditions, environment, corruption and inequality.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks in 4-6 mark answers.

• ✗Mistake: Writing India-China relations as either all hostile or all friendly

  Students pick one side.

  ✓Do this: Show phases: early hope, 1962, slow improvement, trade growth, continuing irritants and recent downslide.

  Usually costs: 2 marks in a 6-mark answer.

NCERT exercise guide: Contemporary Centres of Power

What each exercise in the NCERT chapter tests, how to approach it, and a question of the same kind solved step by step. Questions here are written in our own words.

Practice questions on Contemporary Centres of Power

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

   The 'ASEAN Way' refers to:
   (a) the lifestyle of ASEAN members
   (b) an informal and cooperative form of interaction among ASEAN members
   (c) the defence policy of ASEAN
   (d) a road connecting ASEAN members

   Hint

   Non-confrontationist.

   Answer

   (b).

2. Q2 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

   The Treaty of Maastricht (1992) established:
   (a) the European Coal and Steel Community
   (b) the European Economic Community
   (c) the European Union
   (d) the Schengen area

   Hint

   7 February 1992.

   Answer

   (c) the European Union.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

   Assertion (A): India's trade with ASEAN increased in recent years.
   Reason (R): India followed a Look East Policy from the early 1990s and an Act East Policy from 2014.
   Choose (a)-(d).

   Hint

   Policies leading to interaction.

   Answer

   (a) Both are true and R explains A.

4. Q4 · 1 mark · MCQHarder board level

   Match:
   i. 1951 a. Treaty of Paris (ECSC)
   ii. 1985 b. Schengen Agreement
   iii. 2009 c. Lisbon Treaty
   iv. 2013 d. Croatia becomes 28th member
   (a) i-a, ii-b, iii-c, iv-d
   (b) i-b, ii-a, iii-c, iv-d
   (c) i-a, ii-c, iii-b, iv-d
   (d) i-a, ii-b, iii-d, iv-c

   Hint

   EU timeline.

   Answer

   (a).

5. Q5 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

   What were the objectives of ASEAN at its formation? (2 marks)

   Hint

   Primary and secondary.

   Answer

   Primary: to accelerate economic growth and, through it, social progress and cultural development. Secondary: to promote regional peace and stability based on the rule of law and the principles of the UN Charter.

6. Q6 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   What problems has China faced despite its economic success? (4 marks)

   Hint

   Jobs, women, environment, inequality.

   Answer

   Not everyone benefited: unemployment rose, with nearly 100 million people seeking jobs; female employment and working conditions were as bad as in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe; environmental degradation and corruption increased; and economic inequality grew between rural and urban residents and between coastal and inland provinces.

7. Q7 · 2 marks · Very short answerHarder board level

   What are the components of ASEAN's Vision 2020? (2 marks)

   Hint

   Outward-looking.

   Answer

   It defines an outward-looking role for ASEAN in the international community, building on its policy of encouraging negotiation over conflicts in the region (as in the Cambodian conflict and East Timor crisis) and annual meetings on East Asian cooperation.

8. Q8 · 6 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

   "Peace and prosperity of countries lie in the establishment and strengthening of regional economic organisations." Justify this statement with examples from the EU and ASEAN. (6 marks)

   Hint

   Old enmities, prosperity, security mechanisms.

   Answer

   The EU turned a continent ruined by war into a cooperative region: the Marshall Plan, OEEC, ECSC and EEC built economic links that made old rivalries costly; the EU now has a large economy, the euro, a big share of world trade, and won the Nobel Peace Prize (2012). ASEAN, formed amid colonial legacies, poverty and Cold War pressure, made its members some of the fastest growing economies; its security community holds that territorial disputes should not become armed conflict; the ARF coordinates security; it mediated the Cambodian conflict and East Timor crisis. Both evolved regional solutions to historical enmities and weaknesses and built institutions for a peaceful, cooperative order. A balanced answer can add that divisions (Euro-scepticism, divergent foreign policies) show integration has limits.

9. Q9 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   Suppose two neighbouring countries with a history of wars agree to remove trade barriers, share a currency and let people travel freely. Using the EU's experience, explain how this could reduce the chances of war and what problems might arise. (4 marks)

   Hint

   Interdependence; sovereignty concerns.

   Answer

   Like the EU, economic integration (common market, single currency, free movement as under Schengen) creates interdependence, so conflict becomes costly and cooperation profitable, helping overcome historical enmities. Problems: people may resist giving up national powers (Euro-scepticism, as with Thatcher or Denmark and Sweden on the euro), and members may still disagree on foreign and defence policies, as over the Iraq war.

10. Q10 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

    Why is South Korea's development called the 'Miracle on the Han River'? (2 marks)

    Hint

    1960s-1980s.

    Answer

    Because between the 1960s and the 1980s South Korea rapidly developed into an economic power, becoming an OECD member in 1996 and the eleventh largest economy by 2017.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.What did the OEEC do?Show answer

   Established in 1948 under the Marshall Plan to channel aid to West European states; it became a forum for cooperation on trade and economic issues.

2. 2.What do the twelve stars on the EU flag stand for?Show answer

   Solidarity and harmony between the peoples of Europe; twelve symbolises perfection, completeness and unity.

3. 3.When was the ASEAN Regional Forum set up?Show answer

   In 1994.

4. 4.When did the ASEAN-India FTA come into effect?Show answer

   In 2010.

5. 5.When did China join the WTO?Show answer

   In 2001.

6. 6.Over which regions was the 1962 India-China conflict mainly fought?Show answer

   Arunachal Pradesh and the Aksai Chin region of Ladakh.

7. 7.What does Article 9 of Japan's Constitution say?Show answer

   The Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right and the threat or use of force to settle international disputes.

8. 8.When did both Koreas become UN members?Show answer

   On 17 September 1991.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Can you trace the EU from the Marshall Plan to Maastricht?
• ☐Can you list the EU's economic, diplomatic and military strengths?
• ☐Can you give two limits of the EU?
• ☐Can you name ASEAN's founders and later members?
• ☐Can you define the ASEAN Way and name the three pillars?
• ☐Can you explain India's Look East and Act East policies?
• ☐Can you describe China's command economy and its problems?
• ☐Can you list China's reforms with years?
• ☐Can you give four phases of India-China relations with trade figures?
• ☐Can you give three facts each about Japan and South Korea?

Contemporary Centres of Power: frequently asked questions