Protest Movements: Civil Rights, Anti-Apartheid and Second Wave Feminism, ISC Class 12

What Protest Movements is about

Weightage: CISCE publishes no chapter or unit weightage for ISC History. Protest Movements is part of Section B: World History, 10 of the 2027 syllabus and can be asked anywhere in the 80-mark Paper I (Section A 16 one-mark items, Section B 4-mark short answers, Section C 8-mark long answers).Source: CISCE ISC History (851) syllabus, examination year 2027; ISC 2025 specimen question paper

Key concepts

Racial discrimination in the USA and the change in the government's attitude

Racial discrimination
1. Segregation ('Jim Crow' laws) in the Southern states: separate schools, buses, restaurants, toilets and waiting rooms for black and white people, upheld since 1896 under the doctrine of 'separate but equal'.
2. Denial of the vote: literacy tests, poll taxes and intimidation kept most black Southerners off the electoral rolls.
3. Violence: lynching and the Ku Klux Klan; police often sided with racists.
4. Discrimination in the North too: poorer housing, schools and jobs in city ghettos.

Change in the government's attitude

• President Truman desegregated the armed forces (1948).
• Brown v. Board of Education (1954): the Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools were unconstitutional.
• Little Rock (1957): when the governor of Arkansas used troops to stop nine black students entering a white school, President Eisenhower sent federal troops to protect them; the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960 were weak but a start.
• President Kennedy (1961-63) sent federal marshals to protect black students and Freedom Riders and proposed a strong civil rights bill.
• President Lyndon B. Johnson secured the Civil Rights Act (1964), banning segregation in public places and discrimination in employment, and the Voting Rights Act (1965), ending literacy tests and sending federal officials to register voters; the Fair Housing Act followed (1968).
• In the 1970s busing to desegregate schools and 'affirmative action' in jobs and education were introduced.

Worked example

[4] Explain how the attitude of the US government towards civil rights changed between 1954 and 1965. (Understanding)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Brown v. Board of Education (1954) declared segregated schools unconstitutional - 1 mark.
2. Eisenhower sent federal troops to Little Rock (1957); weak Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960 - 1 mark.
3. Kennedy protected Freedom Riders and black students and proposed a civil rights bill (1963) - 1 mark.
4. Johnson passed the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965) - 1 mark.

Answer: The Supreme Court's Brown judgment (1954) declared school segregation unconstitutional; Eisenhower sent troops to enforce desegregation at Little Rock (1957), and modest Civil Rights Acts followed; Kennedy used federal marshals to protect activists and proposed a strong bill in 1963; and Johnson secured the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, so the federal government moved from tolerating segregation to outlawing it.

Dr Martin Luther King Jr and the campaign for equal rights

1. Montgomery bus boycott (1955-56): after Rosa Parks was arrested (December 1955) for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white man, King, a young Baptist minister, led a boycott of Montgomery's buses for over a year until the Supreme Court ruled bus segregation unconstitutional (1956).
2. Philosophy: inspired by Christianity and Gandhi, he insisted on non-violent direct action: boycotts, sit-ins, marches and civil disobedience.
3. Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC, 1957): he founded and led it to co-ordinate protests across the South.
4. Support for sit-ins (from 1960) and the Freedom Rides (1961) by students and activists.
5. Birmingham campaign (1963): peaceful marches met with police dogs and fire hoses; images shocked the nation. In jail he wrote the 'Letter from Birmingham Jail'.
6. March on Washington (August 1963): about 250,000 people; his 'I have a dream' speech; it built support for the Civil Rights Act (1964).
7. Nobel Peace Prize (1964).
8. Selma to Montgomery marches (1965) for voting rights led to the Voting Rights Act (1965).
9. Later campaigns against poverty in Northern cities and against the Vietnam War; the Poor People's Campaign. He was assassinated in Memphis on 4 April 1968.

Worked example

[4] Who spoke of a dream of racial equality at the March on Washington in 1963? Explain three other ways in which he advanced civil rights. (Recall)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Dr Martin Luther King Jr - 1 mark.
2. Led the Montgomery bus boycott (1955-56) after Rosa Parks's arrest, ending bus segregation - 1 mark.
3. Founded the SCLC (1957) and led non-violent campaigns such as Birmingham (1963) - 1 mark.
4. Led the March on Washington (1963) and Selma marches (1965), helping pass the 1964 and 1965 Acts; Nobel Prize 1964 - 1 mark.

Answer: Dr Martin Luther King Jr. He led the Montgomery bus boycott, which ended bus segregation; he founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and led non-violent campaigns such as Birmingham; and he led the March on Washington and the Selma marches, building the pressure that produced the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, for which work he received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964.

Main features of apartheid (1948-94)

Apartheid ('separateness' in Afrikaans) was the system of institutionalised racial segregation and white minority rule introduced in South Africa by the National Party government after it won the 1948 election.

Main features
1. Racial classification: the Population Registration Act (1950) classified every person as White, Coloured, Indian (Asian) or Black (African).
2. Separate living areas: the Group Areas Act (1950) assigned separate residential and business areas to each race; black people were moved out of 'white' areas.
3. Ban on mixed marriages and sexual relations between races (1949-50).
4. Separate amenities: separate buses, trains, beaches, parks, hospitals and entrances (1953).
5. Bantu education (1953): an inferior, separate education for black children.
6. Pass laws: black people had to carry passbooks and could be arrested if found in white areas without permission.
7. 'Homelands' (Bantustans): black people were assigned to ten tribal homelands, some declared 'independent', so that they lost South African citizenship.
8. No political rights: black people had no vote; opposition was crushed under security laws such as the Suppression of Communism Act (1950).

Worked example

[4] Define apartheid in your own words and describe three laws or practices through which it worked. (Recall)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Apartheid was the system of institutionalised racial segregation and white minority rule in South Africa (1948-94) under the National Party - 1 mark.
2. Racial classification under the Population Registration Act (1950) - 1 mark.
3. Separate areas and amenities: Group Areas Act; separate buses, schools, beaches - 1 mark.
4. Pass laws, Bantustans and denial of the vote to black people - 1 mark.

Answer: Apartheid was the legal system of racial segregation and white minority rule in South Africa from 1948 to 1994, introduced by the National Party. Its features included classification of all people by race, separate residential areas and amenities for each race, and pass laws, homelands (Bantustans) and denial of voting rights that kept black South Africans powerless.

Opposition to apartheid and Nelson Mandela's role

Mandela's contributions
1. Joined the African National Congress (ANC) in 1944 and helped found its Youth League with Walter Sisulu and Oliver Tambo; the League's Programme of Action (1949) called for mass protest.
2. Led the Defiance Campaign (1952), in which volunteers broke apartheid laws non-violently.
3. Helped organise the Congress of the People (1955), which adopted the Freedom Charter: 'South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white'.
4. Was a defendant in the Treason Trial (1956-61) and was acquitted.
5. After the Sharpeville massacre (21 March 1960), when police killed 69 protesters, and the banning of the ANC, he helped form Umkhonto we Sizwe ('Spear of the Nation', 1961) to carry out sabotage against government property.
6. Arrested in 1962; at the Rivonia Trial (1963-64) he declared his ideal of a free and democratic society and was sentenced to life imprisonment.
7. Spent 27 years in prison (much of it on Robben Island), becoming the world's best-known political prisoner and a symbol of resistance; he refused conditional release.
8. After his release (February 1990) he negotiated the end of apartheid with de Klerk; they shared the Nobel Peace Prize (1993).
9. As the first black President (1994-99) he promoted reconciliation, set up the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, and worked to improve housing, health and education.

Other opposition

• The Pan Africanist Congress (1959); the Soweto uprising of students (1976); Steve Biko and Black Consciousness (Biko died in police custody, 1977); the United Democratic Front (1983).
• International pressure: UN arms embargo (1977), sports and cultural boycotts, Commonwealth and US sanctions (1986), disinvestment by companies.

Worked example

[4] Explain four contributions of Nelson Mandela to the struggle against apartheid before 1990. (Understanding)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Joined the ANC (1944), helped form the Youth League; Programme of Action (1949) - 1 mark.
2. Led the Defiance Campaign (1952) and helped bring about the Freedom Charter (1955) - 1 mark.
3. Co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe (1961) after Sharpeville and the ban on the ANC - 1 mark.
4. Rivonia Trial and 27 years in prison made him a symbol of resistance worldwide - 1 mark.

Answer: Mandela joined the ANC in 1944 and helped form its Youth League, which pushed it towards mass action; he led the Defiance Campaign of 1952 and helped bring about the Freedom Charter of 1955; after Sharpeville and the banning of the ANC he co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe; and his defiant speech at the Rivonia Trial and 27 years in prison made him a worldwide symbol of the struggle.

Transition to black majority rule and the end of apartheid

Why apartheid ended

• Growing internal resistance (Soweto 1976, the UDF, strikes, township unrest) and states of emergency.
• International sanctions and disinvestment damaged the economy; South Africa was isolated.
• The end of the Cold War removed the government's claim that the ANC was a communist threat.
• P. W. Botha's limited reforms (such as a parliament with separate chambers for Coloureds and Indians, 1984) satisfied no one.

Steps taken by President F. W. de Klerk (from 1989)
1. February 1990: he lifted the ban on the ANC, the PAC and the Communist Party, and released Nelson Mandela (11 February 1990) after 27 years in prison.
2. He ended the state of emergency and repealed the main apartheid laws: the Separate Amenities Act (1990), and the Group Areas Act, the Land Acts and the Population Registration Act (1991).
3. Namibia, ruled by South Africa, was granted independence (1990).
4. Talks on a new constitution began (CODESA, from December 1991); in a 1992 referendum white voters approved continuing the reforms.
5. An interim constitution (1993) guaranteed equal political rights for all.
6. In April 1994 the first elections with universal suffrage were held; the ANC won, Mandela became President (May 1994) and de Klerk one of the Deputy Presidents in a Government of National Unity.

After 1994: a new constitution (1996) and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission under Archbishop Desmond Tutu.

Worked example

[4] How did President F. W. de Klerk dismantle apartheid between 1990 and 1994? Explain four measures. (Understanding)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Unbanned the ANC and other parties and released Mandela in February 1990 - 1 mark.
2. Repealed apartheid laws such as the Group Areas and Population Registration Acts (1990-91) - 1 mark.
3. Started negotiations (CODESA) and won a white referendum for reform (1992); granted Namibia independence - 1 mark.
4. Held the first non-racial election (April 1994), won by the ANC; served as Deputy President under Mandela - 1 mark.

Answer: De Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC and released Mandela in February 1990; repealed the pillars of apartheid, including the Group Areas and Population Registration Acts; opened negotiations on a new constitution and secured white approval for them in the 1992 referendum (while granting Namibia independence); and held the first universal-suffrage election in April 1994, after which Mandela became President and de Klerk a Deputy President.

Second Wave Feminism in the USA: origins and measures

Reasons for its origin
1. The Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, set up by President Kennedy in 1961 and chaired at first by Eleanor Roosevelt, reported in 1963 (American Women) that women faced discrimination in pay, jobs, education and law. It led to similar state commissions and networks of activists.
2. Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963) described 'the problem that has no name': the frustration of educated, middle-class housewives told that fulfilment lay only in being wives, mothers and home-makers. It became a best-seller and awakened millions of women.
3. The Civil Rights Movement gave women experience of organising and protest, a language of equal rights, and an awareness of sexism even within progressive movements.
4. More women were in college and paid work, yet were paid less and kept out of senior jobs.

Equal Pay Act (1963): required equal pay for men and women doing equal work in the same establishment. Implications: it gave women a legal basis to challenge pay discrimination and was the first federal law against sex discrimination; but it covered only identical jobs, did not help women kept out of better-paid jobs, and the pay gap remained wide.

Measures taken by President Lyndon Johnson: the Civil Rights Act (1964), whose Title VII banned discrimination in employment on grounds of sex as well as race, religion and national origin, enforced by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC); and an executive order (1967) extending affirmative action in federal contracts to women.

National Organisation for Women (NOW)

• Founded in 1966 by Betty Friedan and others, because the EEOC was not enforcing the ban on sex discrimination.
• Campaigned for full equality in jobs, pay and education, maternity leave, child-care centres and reproductive rights; used lobbying, lawsuits and demonstrations (such as the Women's Strike for Equality, 1970).
• Equal Rights Amendment (ERA): stated that equality of rights 'shall not be denied or abridged ... on account of sex'. Congress passed it in 1972, but it was ratified by only 35 of the required 38 states by the extended deadline (1982), owing to a strong conservative campaign led by Phyllis Schlafly; so it failed.
• Other gains in the period: Title IX (1972) on equality in education; the Roe v. Wade judgment (1973).

Worked example

[4] Who wrote The Feminine Mystique (1963)? Explain three ways in which the book helped launch Second Wave feminism in the USA. (Understanding)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Author: Betty Friedan (1963) - 1 mark.
2. It named 'the problem that has no name': the frustration of housewives confined to home - 1 mark.
3. It challenged the idea that women were fulfilled only as wives, mothers and home-makers and urged them to seek work and education - 1 mark.
4. It made Friedan a leader; she co-founded NOW (1966), turning awareness into organised action - 1 mark.

Answer: Betty Friedan. Her book (1963) gave voice to 'the problem that has no name', the frustration of educated women confined to the home; it attacked the 'mystique' that women could find fulfilment only as wives and mothers and encouraged them to seek education and careers; and it made Friedan a leader who co-founded the National Organisation for Women in 1966, turning private discontent into an organised movement.

Protest Movements in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-94)

Protest Movements: key facts

Brown v. Board of Education

1954

School segregation unconstitutional.

Montgomery bus boycott

December 1955-December 1956

Rosa Parks; King; SCLC 1957.

March on Washington

August 1963

'I have a dream'; Nobel Prize 1964; King assassinated 4 April 1968.

US laws

Equal Pay Act 1963; Civil Rights Act 1964 (Johnson); Voting Rights Act 1965

Title VII: no discrimination by sex or race in employment.

Apartheid laws

National Party 1948; Population Registration and Group Areas Acts 1950; Bantu Education 1953

Pass laws; Bantustans.

Anti-apartheid struggle

Defiance Campaign 1952; Freedom Charter 1955; Sharpeville 1960; Rivonia 1964; Soweto 1976

Umkhonto we Sizwe 1961.

End of apartheid

Mandela freed 11 February 1990; laws repealed 1990-91; election April 1994

Mandela President, de Klerk Deputy.

Second Wave Feminism

Presidential Commission 1961-63; The Feminine Mystique 1963; NOW 1966; ERA passed by Congress 1972, failed 1982

Friedan; Eleanor Roosevelt; Phyllis Schlafly opposed ERA.

How the board asks Protest Movements

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember Protest Movements

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• King's path: 'M-S-B-W-S'

  Montgomery (1955), SCLC (1957), Birmingham (1963), Washington (1963), Selma (1965).

  Use it when: Contributions in order.

• Mandela's phases: 'Activist - Prisoner - Negotiator - President'

  1944-61 activist; 1962-90 prisoner; 1990-94 negotiator; 1994-99 President.

  Use it when: Eight-point answers without repetition.

• Feminism origins: 'C-F-C'

  Commission (1961-63), Friedan (1963), Civil rights example.

  Use it when: Reasons for origin as the syllabus lists them.

Protest Movements: board-level solved questions

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section D style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In the board paper this is a 8-mark question split into 1 + 2 + 2 + 3 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in Protest Movements

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Writing about apartheid's features or Mandela when de Klerk's steps are asked

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2024: candidates 'Wrote only about features of apartheid and Mandela's role', were 'Unable to explain the transition' and some 'Wrote about Martin Luther King Jr.'s movement in America'.

  ✓Do this: For de Klerk, list what he did from 1990 to 1994.

  Usually costs: Up to 4 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Naming Kennedy for the Civil Rights Act of 1964

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2025: candidates 'Named John F. Kennedy instead of Lyndon B. Johnson.'

  ✓Do this: Kennedy proposed it (1963); Johnson passed it (1964).

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Vague definition of apartheid

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2025: candidates 'Gave partial or vague definitions such as "racial separation" without historical context or country.'

  ✓Do this: Always add country, period and that it was legal and institutional.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Only the Montgomery boycott in King's contributions

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2024: candidates 'Gave unnecessary detail on Montgomery Bus Boycott without other contributions'.

  ✓Do this: One line each on Montgomery, SCLC, Washington, Selma/Nobel.

  Usually costs: 2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Repeated points and mixing up Mandela and King

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2025: candidates 'Repeated points', 'Confused Nelson Mandela with Martin Luther King Jr.' and 'Lacked a clear chronological or thematic structure.'

  ✓Do this: Use the four phases: activist, prisoner, negotiator, President.

  Usually costs: Up to 4 marks.

• ✗Mistake: General feminist achievements instead of the book's impact

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2025: candidates 'Discussed general feminist achievements instead of the specific impact of the book' and 'Overlooked key themes such as "the problem which had no name".'

  ✓Do this: Link each point to The Feminine Mystique: the problem with no name, the housewife myth, Friedan and NOW.

  Usually costs: 2-3 marks.

Practice questions on Protest Movements

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · Very short answerBoard level

   Which President signed the Civil Rights Act into law in July 1964?

   Hint

   Kennedy's successor.

   Answer

   Lyndon B. Johnson.

2. Q2 · 1 mark · Very short answerBoard level

   Explain the term apartheid in one sentence.

   Hint

   Country, period, system.

   Answer

   The system of legalised racial segregation and white minority rule in South Africa from 1948 to 1994.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

   Which anti-apartheid leader spent 27 years in prison, much of it on Robben Island?
   (a) Steve Biko
   (b) Nelson Mandela
   (c) Oliver Tambo
   (d) Desmond Tutu

   Hint

   Released 1990.

   Answer

   (b) Nelson Mandela.

4. Q4 · 1 mark · MCQHarder board level

   In which year did Congress pass the Equal Rights Amendment?
   (a) 1963
   (b) 1966
   (c) 1972
   (d) 1982

   Hint

   Then sent to the states.

   Answer

   (c) 1972.

5. Q5 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   [4] Explain the Sharpeville massacre and its consequences.

   Hint

   Pass laws; ban; armed struggle.

   Answer

   On 21 March 1960, at a PAC protest against the pass laws at Sharpeville, police opened fire and killed 69 people. Consequences: (1) the ANC and PAC were banned; (2) a state of emergency was declared and thousands arrested; (3) Mandela and others turned to armed struggle, forming Umkhonto we Sizwe (1961); (4) it caused international outrage and began South Africa's isolation.

6. Q6 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   [4] Explain why the Civil Rights Movement contributed to the rise of Second Wave Feminism.

   Hint

   Experience, language, sexism, law.

   Answer

   (1) Many women gained experience of organising, protest and non-violent action in the civil rights campaigns. (2) The movement's language of equal rights and dignity could be applied to women. (3) Women activists experienced sexism within the movement, which made them aware of their own subordination. (4) Laws won by the movement, such as the 1964 Act, included sex discrimination, giving women a legal tool.

7. Q7 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   [4] Analyse why the international community's pressure helped end apartheid.

   Hint

   Economy, sport, Cold War, morale.

   Answer

   (1) Economic sanctions and disinvestment by foreign companies weakened the economy and hit white living standards. (2) Sporting and cultural boycotts isolated white South Africans and damaged morale. (3) The UN arms embargo limited military supplies. (4) With the Cold War ending, the government could no longer win Western support by presenting itself as a bulwark against communism.

8. Q8 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   [4] 'Johnson did more for civil rights than Kennedy.' Evaluate.

   Hint

   Proposed versus passed.

   Answer

   Largely true. Kennedy protected activists with federal marshals and proposed a civil rights bill in 1963, but it was stuck in Congress when he died. Johnson used his skill with Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965), and introduced affirmative action. Kennedy started the process, but Johnson turned it into law.

9. Q9 · 8 marks · Long answerHarder board level

   [8] (a) Describe the main features of racial discrimination in the USA in the 1950s. [4]
   (b) Explain the role of Martin Luther King in the campaign for equal rights. [4]

   Hint

   (a) segregation, vote, violence, North; (b) four campaigns.

   Answer

   (a) (1) Jim Crow segregation in the South of schools, buses and public places. (2) Literacy tests and poll taxes denied black people the vote. (3) Lynching, the Ku Klux Klan and police brutality. (4) Ghettos, poor schools and job discrimination in the North. (b) (1) He led the Montgomery bus boycott (1955-56). (2) He founded the SCLC (1957) and spread non-violent direct action. (3) He led the Birmingham campaign and the March on Washington (1963), helping pass the Civil Rights Act (1964). (4) He led the Selma marches, leading to the Voting Rights Act (1965); he won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964.

10. Q10 · 8 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

    [8] Explain the origins of Second Wave Feminism in the USA and assess the role of NOW.

    Hint

    Three origins plus NOW's work and the ERA's fate.

    Answer

    Origins: (1) the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women (1961-63) documented discrimination; (2) Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963) described the problem that has no name; (3) the Civil Rights Movement offered methods and a language of rights; (4) more women in college and work faced unequal pay. NOW (1966): (1) pressed the EEOC to enforce Title VII; (2) campaigned for child care, maternity leave and reproductive rights; (3) organised marches such as the 1970 Women's Strike; (4) led the ERA campaign, which won Congressional approval in 1972 but failed to win enough states by 1982. NOW made women's rights a national issue even though its main goal, the ERA, failed.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.Whose arrest began the Montgomery bus boycott?Show answer

   Rosa Parks (December 1955).

2. 2.What did Brown v. Board of Education decide?Show answer

   That segregated public schools were unconstitutional (1954).

3. 3.What was Umkhonto we Sizwe?Show answer

   The armed wing of the ANC ('Spear of the Nation'), formed in 1961.

4. 4.When was Mandela released?Show answer

   11 February 1990.

5. 5.Who chaired the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women?Show answer

   Eleanor Roosevelt.

6. 6.Who led the campaign against the ERA?Show answer

   Phyllis Schlafly.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐USA: Jim Crow, voting barriers, violence; Brown 1954; Little Rock 1957; Civil Rights Act 1964 and Voting Rights Act 1965 (Johnson).
• ☐King: Montgomery 1955-56; SCLC 1957; Birmingham and Washington 1963; Nobel 1964; Selma 1965; killed 1968.
• ☐Apartheid 1948-94: classification, Group Areas, separate amenities, Bantu education, pass laws, homelands, no vote.
• ☐Opposition: Defiance 1952; Freedom Charter 1955; Sharpeville 1960; MK 1961; Rivonia 1964; Soweto 1976; sanctions.
• ☐End: de Klerk unbans ANC and frees Mandela 1990; laws repealed; CODESA; 1992 referendum; election April 1994.
• ☐Feminism: Commission 1961-63; Friedan 1963; Equal Pay Act 1963; Title VII 1964; NOW 1966; ERA passed 1972, failed 1982.

Protest Movements: frequently asked questions