Skip to content

Anti-Apartheid Movement ISC Class 12 History Notes

questionbuddy.in/isc/class-12/history/protest-movements/anti-apartheid-movement-in-south-africa

HistoryISC Class 12 · Protest Movements

The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-94): Features, Mandela's Role and the End (ISC Class 12 History)

Updated 17 October 2026 · Fact-checked

Apartheid was a system of racial segregation and white minority rule introduced in South Africa after the National Party won the 1948 election. It was resisted by the ANC, led in time by Nelson Mandela, and by Soweto, the UDF and international sanctions. President F. W. de Klerk freed Mandela on 11 February 1990 and repealed the main laws; the first universal elections of April 1994 made Mandela President.

Follow the red line of apartheid rule from 1948 to 1990, then see the green turn to democracy after Mandela's release and the 1994 election.

Illustration drawn for QuestionBuddy.

Understand The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-94)

What the syllabus asks. "Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-1994): main features of Apartheid, opposition to Apartheid (Dr Nelson Mandela's role), transition to black majority rule and the end of Apartheid." Three sections.

1. Main features of apartheid. Apartheid ("separateness" in Afrikaans) was the system of institutionalised racial segregation and white minority rule introduced by the National Party government after it won the 1948 election.
1. *Racial classification:* the Population Registration Act (1950) classified every person as White, Coloured, Indian (Asian) or Black (African).
2. *Separate living areas:* the Group Areas Act (1950) assigned separate residential and business areas to each race; black people were moved out of "white" areas.
3. A ban on mixed marriages and sexual relations between races (1949-50).
4. *Separate amenities:* buses, trains, beaches, parks, hospitals and entrances (1953).
5. *Bantu education* (1953): an inferior, separate education for black children.
6. *Pass laws:* black people had to carry passbooks and could be arrested if found in white areas without permission.
7. *Homelands (Bantustans):* black people were assigned to ten tribal homelands, some declared "independent", so that they lost South African citizenship.
8. *No political rights:* black people had no vote, and opposition was crushed under security laws such as the Suppression of Communism Act (1950).

2. Opposition and Mandela's role.
1. Joined the African National Congress (ANC) in 1944 and helped found its Youth League with Walter Sisulu and Oliver Tambo; the League's Programme of Action (1949) called for mass protest.
2. Led the Defiance Campaign (1952), in which volunteers broke apartheid laws non-violently.
3. Helped organise the Congress of the People (1955), which adopted the Freedom Charter: "South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white".
4. Was a defendant in the Treason Trial (1956-61) and was acquitted.
5. After the Sharpeville massacre (21 March 1960), when police killed 69 protesters, and the banning of the ANC, he helped form Umkhonto we Sizwe ("Spear of the Nation", 1961) to carry out sabotage against government property.
6. Arrested in 1962; at the Rivonia Trial (1963-64) he declared his ideal of a free and democratic society and was sentenced to life imprisonment.
7. Spent 27 years in prison, much of it on Robben Island, becoming the world's best-known political prisoner; he refused conditional release.
8. After his release (February 1990) he negotiated the end of apartheid with de Klerk; they shared the Nobel Peace Prize (1993).
9. As the first black President (1994-99) he promoted reconciliation, set up the Truth and Reconciliation Commission and worked to improve housing, health and education.
*Other opposition:* the Pan Africanist Congress (1959); the Soweto uprising of students (1976); Steve Biko and Black Consciousness (Biko died in police custody, 1977); the United Democratic Front (1983). *International pressure:* a UN arms embargo (1977), sports and cultural boycotts, Commonwealth and US sanctions (1986) and disinvestment by companies.

3. Transition and the end of apartheid.
*Why it ended:* growing internal resistance (Soweto 1976, the UDF, strikes, township unrest) and states of emergency; international sanctions and disinvestment, which damaged the economy; the end of the Cold War, which removed the government's claim that the ANC was a communist threat; and P. W. Botha's limited reforms (such as a parliament with separate chambers for Coloureds and Indians, 1984), which satisfied no one.
*Steps by President F. W. de Klerk (from 1989):*
1. February 1990: he lifted the ban on the ANC, the PAC and the Communist Party, and released Mandela (11 February 1990).
2. He ended the state of emergency and repealed the main apartheid laws: the Separate Amenities Act (1990), and the Group Areas Act, the Land Acts and the Population Registration Act (1991).
3. Namibia, ruled by South Africa, was granted independence (1990).
4. Talks on a new constitution began (CODESA, from December 1991); in a 1992 referendum white voters approved continuing the reforms.
5. An interim constitution (1993) guaranteed equal political rights for all.
6. In April 1994 the first elections with universal suffrage were held; the ANC won, Mandela became President (May 1994) and de Klerk one of the Deputy Presidents in a Government of National Unity.
*After 1994:* a new constitution (1996) and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission under Archbishop Desmond Tutu.

The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-94): key facts

Laws of apartheid
  • Population Registration Act 1950
  • Group Areas Act 1950
  • Separate amenities 1953
  • Bantu education 1953
  • Pass laws
  • Homelands
Racial classification to political exclusion.
Mandela timeline
1944joins ANC
1952Defiance Campaign
1955Freedom Charter
1960Sharpeville
1961Umkhonto we Sizwe
1963-64Rivonia Trial
11 Feb 1990 released
April 1994 elections
Eight dates.
Pressures that ended apartheid
  • Internal resistance (Soweto, UDF)
  • Sanctions and disinvestment
  • End of the Cold War
  • Failed Botha reforms
Four pressures.

How to answer The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-94) questions

A 6 to 8 mark question may combine features, resistance and end. Keep to the syllabus order, with Mandela named for each key date.

  1. 1Define apartheid and state the year (1948).
  2. 2List five to six features with the Act and year.
  3. 3Describe resistance: ANC, Defiance Campaign, Freedom Charter, Sharpeville, Rivonia, Soweto, sanctions.
  4. 4Explain the end: reasons, de Klerk's steps, 1994 election.

The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-94) in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Rules that sort people unfairly

Suppose a school assigned students to different entrances, canteens and classrooms by a label given at birth and gave the labelled groups different quality of teaching.

Why would such a system cause lasting harm?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. It treats people as less because of a label.
  2. It gives unequal chances to learn and grow.
  3. It builds resentment and resistance.

Answer: Systems that sort people by birth create unequal opportunity and resistance; apartheid classified and separated people by race.

Memory hook: Labels become walls.

Pressure from outside and inside

Imagine a club whose members protest at home while other clubs stop playing matches against it and sponsors withdraw.

Why might the club decide to change its rules?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Members' protest shows discontent.
  2. Isolation raises costs.
  3. Both together make change seem necessary.

Answer: Internal resistance combined with outside pressure can force change; apartheid faced both in the 1980s.

Memory hook: Squeeze from both sides.

Tricks to remember The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-94)

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

  • P-G-S-B-P-H-N for features

    Population registration, Group areas, Separate amenities, Bantu education, Pass laws, Homelands, No vote.

    Use it when: Seven features.

  • D-F-T-S-R for Mandela before prison

    Defiance 1952, Freedom Charter 1955, Treason Trial 1956, Sharpeville and Spear (1960-61), Rivonia 1963.

    Use it when: Steps before prison.

The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-94): solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Pass laws · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

What were the pass laws and what was their purpose? [2]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Black people had to carry passbooks (1 mark).
  2. To control their movement into white areas (1 mark).

Answer: Black South Africans had to carry passbooks and could be arrested if found in white areas without permission. The purpose was to control their movement and keep them in their assigned areas.

Example 2: Sharpeville · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level

What happened at Sharpeville on 21 March 1960? What were its results? [3]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Police killed 69 protesters (1 mark).
  2. ANC banned (1 mark).
  3. Led to Umkhonto we Sizwe and international outrage (1 mark).

Answer: On 21 March 1960 police killed 69 protesters at Sharpeville, who were demonstrating against the pass laws. The ANC was banned, and Mandela and others formed Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 to carry out sabotage. The massacre also aroused international condemnation.

Example 3: Main features of apartheid · 6 marks · Long answerHarder board level

Describe the main features of the system of apartheid in South Africa. [6]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Classification and group areas (2 marks).
  2. Separate amenities and education (2 marks).
  3. Pass laws, homelands, no vote (2 marks).

Answer: The Population Registration Act of 1950 classified every person as White, Coloured, Indian or Black. The Group Areas Act of 1950 assigned separate residential and business areas, and black people were moved out of "white" areas. Buses, beaches, hospitals and other amenities were separated in 1953, and Bantu education gave black children an inferior education. Black people had to carry passbooks, were assigned to ten tribal homelands and lost South African citizenship when some of these were declared independent, and they had no vote.

Example 4: Mandela's role · 8 marks · Long answerHarder board level

Trace Nelson Mandela's journey from ANC Youth League member to President of South Africa, showing how his methods changed. [8]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. ANC Youth League and Defiance Campaign (2 marks).
  2. Freedom Charter and Treason Trial (2 marks).
  3. Sharpeville, Umkhonto, Rivonia, prison (2 marks).
  4. Release, negotiation, Presidency (2 marks).

Answer: Mandela joined the ANC in 1944 and helped found its Youth League, whose 1949 Programme of Action called for mass protest. He led the Defiance Campaign of 1952 and helped organise the Congress of the People in 1955, which adopted the Freedom Charter. After the Sharpeville massacre and the banning of the ANC he helped form Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961. Arrested in 1962, he made a famous speech at the Rivonia Trial and was sentenced to life imprisonment; he spent 27 years in prison, refusing conditional release. After his release in 1990 he negotiated with de Klerk, shared the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize and became the first black President in 1994.

Example 5: Source-based: a Freedom Charter · 6 marks · Source-basedHOTS / competency

Read the extract (written for this page) and answer.

At a gathering in 1955, delegates of many races adopted a document stating that the country belonged to all who lived in it. A few years later, after police killed protesters at a township, the organisation behind the document was banned and its leaders formed an armed wing.

(i) Name the document and organisation. [1]
(ii) Name the township where the protesters were killed. [1]
(iii) Explain why the organisation took up sabotage after the ban. [2]
(iv) State two international pressures on South Africa in the 1980s. [2]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. (i) Freedom Charter; African National Congress (1 mark).
  2. (ii) Sharpeville (1 mark).
  3. (iii) Peaceful protest had been banned and met by violence, so leaders judged that sabotage of property was the only remaining means (2 marks).
  4. (iv) UN arms embargo; sports boycotts; sanctions; disinvestment (2 marks).

Answer: (i) The Freedom Charter; the African National Congress. (ii) Sharpeville. (iii) After the ban and the killings, legal and peaceful protest seemed closed, so Mandela and others formed Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 to carry out sabotage against government property while trying to avoid loss of life. (iv) Sports and cultural boycotts and sanctions, including those by the Commonwealth and the USA in 1986, along with disinvestment by companies.

Where students lose marks in The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-94)

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

  • Mistake: Dating the end of apartheid to 1990

    Release is not the end.

    Wrong working

    Apartheid ended in February 1990.

    Right working

    Release in 1990; repeal of laws in 1990-91; first universal elections in April 1994.

    Do this: 1990 release; 1994 elections.

    Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

  • Mistake: Calling the ANC always violent

    Overlooking non-violent campaigns.

    Wrong working

    The ANC only used violence.

    Right working

    The ANC used non-violent protest for years; Umkhonto we Sizwe began in 1961 after the ban.

    Do this: Non-violent until 1961.

    Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

  • Mistake: Naming de Klerk as the first black President

    Mixing the two leaders.

    Wrong working

    F. W. de Klerk became the first black President.

    Right working

    Mandela was the first black President; de Klerk was a Deputy President.

    Do this: Mandela = President.

    Usually costs: 1 mark.

  • Mistake: Missing international pressure

    Writing only about internal resistance.

    Wrong working

    Resistance in South Africa ended apartheid.

    Right working

    Add sanctions, boycotts and disinvestment.

    Do this: Internal + external.

    Usually costs: 2 marks.

Exam tips

  • Give each law with its year; the Population Registration and Group Areas Acts are both 1950.
  • For Mandela, list steps in time order with a year each.
  • In the end of apartheid, give both pressures and de Klerk's steps.

Practice questions on The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-94)

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

  1. Q1 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

    What were the "homelands" and why were they created? [2]

    Hint

    Bantustans.

    Answer

    The homelands, or Bantustans, were ten tribal areas to which black people were assigned. They were created to deny black South Africans citizenship and political rights in the rest of the country.

  2. Q2 · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level

    What was the Defiance Campaign of 1952? [3]

    Hint

    Non-violent breaking of laws.

    Answer

    It was a campaign led by the ANC, with Mandela as a leader, in which volunteers broke apartheid laws non-violently, for example by entering places reserved for other races. It aimed to show the unjust nature of apartheid laws.

  3. Q3 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level

    Explain the significance of the Soweto uprising of 1976 and Steve Biko. [4]

    Hint

    Students and Black Consciousness.

    Answer

    In 1976 students in Soweto rose against inferior education and apartheid, and many were killed by police, which revived resistance and drew world attention. Steve Biko led the Black Consciousness movement, which gave black people pride and confidence, and his death in police custody in 1977 made him a martyr.

  4. Q4 · 5 marks · Short answerHarder board level

    List the steps taken by de Klerk from 1990 to end apartheid. [5]

    Hint

    Unbanning, release, repeal, talks, elections.

    Answer

    In February 1990 de Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC, the PAC and the Communist Party and released Mandela. He ended the state of emergency and repealed the main apartheid laws, including the Group Areas Act and the Population Registration Act. Talks on a new constitution began, an interim constitution of 1993 guaranteed equal rights, and the first universal elections took place in April 1994.

  5. Q5 · 6 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

    "Apartheid ended because of Mandela alone." Evaluate this statement. [6] (Evaluation)

    Hint

    Compare personal leadership with mass resistance, sanctions and the Cold War.

    Answer

    Mandela's leadership was central: he symbolised resistance in prison for 27 years, then negotiated with de Klerk, and encouraged reconciliation. But the statement ignores mass resistance such as Soweto and the UDF, international sanctions and disinvestment, the failure of Botha's reforms and the end of the Cold War. De Klerk's decisions to release him and to repeal the laws were also essential. A fair conclusion is that Mandela was necessary but not sufficient.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

  1. 1.Which party introduced apartheid in 1948?Show answer

    The National Party.

  2. 2.What was the Freedom Charter?Show answer

    A 1955 document of the Congress of the People stating that South Africa belongs to all who live in it.

  3. 3.What does Umkhonto we Sizwe mean?Show answer

    Spear of the Nation.

  4. 4.When was Mandela released?Show answer

    11 February 1990.

  5. 5.When were the first universal elections?Show answer

    April 1994.

  6. 6.Who led the Truth and Reconciliation Commission?Show answer

    Archbishop Desmond Tutu.

The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-94): frequently asked questions

What was apartheid?

The system of institutionalised racial segregation and white minority rule introduced in South Africa after 1948.

What role did Nelson Mandela play?

He led the Defiance Campaign, helped form Umkhonto we Sizwe, was jailed for 27 years, negotiated the end of apartheid and became the first black President.

Why did apartheid end?

Internal resistance, sanctions and disinvestment, the end of the Cold War and the failure of limited reforms.

What was the Truth and Reconciliation Commission?

A body set up after 1994 to hear accounts of apartheid-era abuses and promote reconciliation, headed by Desmond Tutu.