ICSE Class 9 · Chapter 4

The Harappan Civilisation ICSE Class 9: Sources, Cities and Decline

Updated 15 October 2026 · Fact-checked

The Harappan Civilisation was a Bronze Age urban culture of the Indus valley and beyond, at its height around 2600-1900 B.C. ICSE Class 9 tests its sources (Great Bath, Citadel, seals, bearded man, dancing girl, Lothal dockyard, granaries, script), its town planning, trade, art and craft, and the theories that explain its decline.

What The Harappan Civilisation is about

In the 1920s excavations at Harappa (on the Ravi, now in Pakistani Punjab) and Mohenjo-daro (on the Indus, in Sindh) revealed planned cities of baked brick, with drains, granaries and public buildings. Because Harappa was the first site excavated, the whole culture is called the Harappan Civilisation; it is also called the Indus Valley Civilisation. Later finds, such as Lothal and Dholavira in Gujarat, Kalibangan in Rajasthan and Rakhigarhi in Haryana, show it spread far beyond the Indus.

The CISCE syllabus asks for three things. First, the sources: the Great Bath, the Citadel, seals, the bearded man, the dancing girl, the dockyard, the granaries and the script, and what each tells us. Second, the main features: urban planning, trade, and art and craft. Third, its decline.

Since the script has not been deciphered, everything we know comes from material remains. Good answers therefore link each object to a conclusion: the Great Bath suggests ritual bathing; the granaries suggest surplus and organised storage; seals found in Mesopotamia suggest long-distance trade.

Weightage: CISCE publishes no chapter weightage and no question-paper layout for ICSE Class 9 History and Civics. Class IX is examined by your school: one 80-mark paper of 2 hours plus 20 marks of internal assessment. The Harappan Civilisation is History topic 1 of the 2028 syllabus.Source: CISCE ICSE 2028 History and Civics syllabus, Class IX

Key concepts

Sources: buildings (Great Bath, Citadel, granaries, dockyard)

Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro): a large rectangular tank about 12 m long, 7 m wide and 2.4 m deep, with steps at both ends, a floor of burnt bricks made watertight with gypsum mortar and a layer of bitumen, and rooms around it. It shows skilled engineering and suggests ritual bathing.

Citadel: the raised, fortified western part of a city, built on a brick platform. It held important public buildings such as the Great Bath and granaries. The lower town, where most people lived, lay to the east. The division suggests an organised ruling group.

Granaries: large storehouses for grain, found at Harappa (blocks in two rows near the river) and Mohenjo-daro. They show that farmers produced a surplus and that a central authority collected and stored it.

Dockyard (Lothal, Gujarat): a large brick basin connected by a channel to a river, interpreted as a dockyard where boats were loaded and unloaded. It shows that the Harappans carried on sea trade.

Worked example

(3 marks) What does each of the following tell us about the Harappans: (i) the Great Bath, (ii) the granaries, (iii) the dockyard at Lothal?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Great Bath: engineering skill (watertight brick tank) and the importance of ritual bathing - 1 mark.
Granaries: agricultural surplus and an organised authority that stored it - 1 mark.
Dockyard: maritime trade with distant lands - 1 mark.

Answer: (i) The Great Bath shows advanced engineering and suggests ritual bathing in religious life. (ii) The granaries show a food surplus and a central authority to store and distribute grain. (iii) The Lothal dockyard shows that the Harappans traded by sea.

Sources: seals, sculptures and script

Seals: small, mostly square seals usually made of steatite (soapstone), carved with animals such as the humped bull, elephant, tiger, rhinoceros and a one-horned animal often called a unicorn, with a line of script on top. They were probably used to stamp goods or packages, marking ownership. A few seals show a figure seated cross-legged surrounded by animals, which some scholars link to an early form of Shiva (Pashupati); this is an interpretation, not a certainty. Harappan seals found in Mesopotamia show long-distance trade.

Bearded man ('priest-king'): a steatite bust from Mohenjo-daro of a bearded man with half-closed eyes, a headband and a shawl decorated with a trefoil (three-leaf) pattern worn over the left shoulder. It shows skill in stone sculpture and the dress of an important person.

Dancing girl: a small bronze figure from Mohenjo-daro of a girl standing with one hand on her hip, wearing many bangles on one arm. It was made by the lost-wax process and shows mastery of metal casting.

Script: written signs found on seals, pottery and tablets. It is pictographic, has around 400 signs, and is generally read from right to left. It has not been deciphered, so we cannot read Harappan records.

Worked example

(3 marks) Describe the Harappan seals and state two things they tell us.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Description: small, mostly square, of steatite, carved with animals (bull, unicorn, elephant) and script - 1 mark.
Use: stamping goods to mark ownership in trade - 1 mark.
Evidence: seals found in Mesopotamia show foreign trade; they show the script and artistic skill - 1 mark.

Answer: Harappan seals are small, mostly square steatite pieces carved with animals such as the humped bull and unicorn, with a short line of script. They were probably used to stamp goods, so they show organised trade; seals found in Mesopotamia prove foreign trade, and they preserve examples of the script and of fine carving.

Urban planning

Harappan cities were planned:

Grid plan: main streets ran north-south and east-west, crossing at right angles and dividing the city into rectangular blocks.
Citadel and lower town: a raised fortified citadel on the west and a larger residential lower town on the east.
Standard bricks: baked bricks of uniform proportions (thickness : width : length = 1 : 2 : 4) were used across many sites.
Drainage: every house had drains connected to covered street drains made of brick, with inspection holes for cleaning. This is one of the most remarkable features.
Houses: built around open courtyards, often with a well, bathroom and staircase to an upper floor; doors usually opened on side lanes rather than main streets.
Public buildings: Great Bath, granaries, assembly halls.

The uniformity of plan and bricks over a large area suggests some central authority.

Worked example

(4 marks) Describe four features of town planning in the Harappan cities.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Grid pattern with streets crossing at right angles - 1 mark.
Division into citadel and lower town - 1 mark.
Covered drainage system linked to house drains - 1 mark.
Houses of standard baked bricks around courtyards with wells and bathrooms - 1 mark.

Answer: (1) Streets laid out in a grid, crossing at right angles. (2) A raised citadel for public buildings and a lower town for homes. (3) Covered brick drains along streets, joined to the drains of each house. (4) Houses of standard-sized burnt bricks built around courtyards, with wells and bathrooms.

Trade

Internal trade: raw materials moved across a wide area: copper from Rajasthan (Khetri region), shell from the Gujarat coast, semi-precious stones such as carnelian from Gujarat, and timber from the hills. Standard weights (usually cubical, made of chert) following a fixed system suggest regulated trade.

External trade: Harappan seals, beads and other objects have been found in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), and Mesopotamian texts mention trade with a land called Meluhha, which many scholars identify with the Harappan region. Trade went by land (bullock carts, pack animals) and by sea (boats; the Lothal dockyard).

Exchange was probably by barter, as no coins have been found.

Worked example

(3 marks) What evidence shows that the Harappans traded with Mesopotamia?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Harappan seals and beads have been found in Mesopotamia - 1 mark.
Mesopotamian texts mention trade with Meluhha, believed to be the Harappan region - 1 mark.
The dockyard at Lothal shows sea trade facilities - 1 mark.

Answer: Harappan seals and beads have been found at Mesopotamian sites; Mesopotamian records refer to trade with Meluhha, generally identified with the Harappan region; and the dockyard at Lothal shows that goods were shipped by sea.

Art and craft

Pottery: wheel-made red pottery painted with black designs (geometric patterns, leaves, fish scales).
Metal work: tools, weapons and vessels of copper and bronze; the dancing girl shows lost-wax casting.
Sculpture: the stone bust of the bearded man; terracotta figurines of animals, toy carts and female figures, possibly mother goddesses.
Bead-making: beads of carnelian, steatite, gold and faience, made with skilful drilling.
Seal carving: fine carving of animals on steatite.
Textiles: spindle whorls and traces of cotton show spinning and weaving.
Ornaments: necklaces, bangles, earrings of gold, silver, copper, shell and faience.

Worked example

(2 marks) Name two crafts practised by the Harappans and the evidence for each.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Metal casting: bronze dancing girl (lost-wax) - 1 mark.
Pottery: wheel-made red ware with black designs (or beads, seals, terracotta) - 1 mark.

Answer: Metal casting, shown by the bronze dancing girl; and pottery, shown by wheel-made red pots painted with black designs. (Also bead-making, seal carving, weaving.)

Decline

From about 1900 B.C. the cities declined: planning broke down, writing and seals went out of use and people moved to smaller villages. No single cause is accepted; historians weigh several:
1. Floods: layers of silt at Mohenjo-daro suggest repeated flooding by the Indus.
2. Climate change: drier conditions may have reduced farm output.
3. Changes in river courses: the drying up or shifting of rivers such as the Ghaggar-Hakra left settlements without water.
4. Earthquakes and tectonic changes may have altered rivers.
5. Ecological damage: cutting forests for fuel (to bake bricks) and over-grazing may have led to soil erosion.
6. Decline of trade with Mesopotamia reduced wealth.
7. External attack: an older theory held that invaders destroyed the cities; most historians today find little evidence for large-scale invasion.
The decline was probably gradual and uneven, with different causes at different sites.

Worked example

(4 marks) Explain any four causes suggested for the decline of the Harappan Civilisation.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Floods of the Indus, shown by silt layers at Mohenjo-daro - 1 mark.
Drying up or change in the course of rivers - 1 mark.
Climate change making the region drier - 1 mark.
Ecological damage through deforestation / decline of trade / earthquakes - 1 mark.

Answer: (1) Repeated floods of the Indus damaged Mohenjo-daro. (2) Rivers such as the Ghaggar-Hakra dried up or changed course. (3) The climate became drier, reducing crops. (4) Cutting forests for brick kilns caused soil erosion (also: decline of foreign trade, earthquakes). Most historians think several of these acted together over time.

The Harappan Civilisation in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Drainage and town planning

Suppose your town's streets flood after every heavy shower because drains are open, blocked and not connected to houses.

Which Harappan feature would solve this, and how did it work?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Harappan houses had drains connected to main street drains.
Street drains were covered with bricks or stones and had openings for cleaning.
This kept waste water off the streets and allowed regular cleaning.

Answer: The Harappan covered drainage system: house drains joined covered street drains with inspection holes, so waste water flowed away underground and drains could be cleaned regularly.

Memory hook: Harappa hid its drains and kept its streets dry.

Seals as evidence of trade

Imagine an archaeologist finds a square steatite seal with a unicorn and script in a site in Iraq.

What can she conclude, and why?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Such seals are typical of the Harappan Civilisation.
Seals were used to stamp goods in trade.
Finding one in Mesopotamia shows that goods travelled between the two regions.

Answer: She can conclude that Harappan merchants traded with Mesopotamia, since seals that marked Harappan goods have travelled there.

Memory hook: A seal abroad is a receipt of trade.

Standard weights

Suppose two shopkeepers in a market weigh the same bag of grain and get different results because each uses his own stones.

How did the Harappans avoid this problem, and what does it show?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Harappan weights were made in a standard series, usually of cubical chert.
The same system was used across many sites.
This made trade fair and suggests regulation by some authority.

Answer: They used standard cubical chert weights following a fixed system across their region, which made exchange fair and shows that trade was regulated.

Memory hook: Same weights, fair trade, one authority.

Topics in this chapter

Harappan Town Planning, Trade, Craft and Decline

The Harappan Civilisation: key facts

Mature Harappan phase: About 2600-1900 B.C.; Bronze Age; decline after about 1900 B.C.
Harappa: On the Ravi; excavated 1921 (Daya Ram Sahni); First site; gives the civilisation its name.
Mohenjo-daro: On the Indus; excavated 1922 (R.D. Banerji); Great Bath, granary, bearded man, dancing girl.
Lothal: Gujarat; Dockyard.
Brick ratio: 1 : 2 : 4 (thickness : width : length); Standard baked bricks.
Script: Pictographic, about 400 signs, right to left, undeciphered; Found mostly on seals.

How the school exam asks The Harappan Civilisation

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Question type	How it is asked	Method
Picture identification (2-3 marks)	A picture of the dancing girl, bearded man, a seal or the Great Bath: identify it and state its significance.	Name, site, material, and one conclusion it supports.
Features (4 marks)	Describe the town planning / drainage / trade of the Harappans.	Four distinct points, each with a detail.
Evidence-to-conclusion (3 marks)	What do the granaries / seals / dockyard tell us?	Object, then 'this shows that...'.
Decline (3-4 marks)	Explain the causes of the decline.	Give several theories neutrally; say historians do not agree on one cause.

Tricks to remember The Harappan Civilisation

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

Mohenjo-daro's four treasures
Bath, Bust, Bronze, Barn: Great Bath, bearded man bust, bronze dancing girl, granary.
Use it when: Sources linked to Mohenjo-daro.
Lothal = Load-hall
Boats were loaded at Lothal's dockyard.
Use it when: Dockyard site.
1-2-4 bricks
Thickness 1, width 2, length 4: double, then double again.
Use it when: Standard brick ratio.

The Harappan Civilisation: exam-level solved questions

Ordered from exam level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Example 1: Dockyard site · 1 mark · MCQExam level

The Harappan dockyard was found at:
(a) Harappa
(b) Mohenjo-daro
(c) Lothal
(d) Kalibangan

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

The dockyard is a coastal-trade structure.
It was found at Lothal in Gujarat.

Answer: (c) Lothal.

Example 2: Assertion and reason: script · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder exam level

Assertion (A): Our knowledge of Harappan political organisation is uncertain.
Reason (R): The Harappan script has not yet been deciphered.
(a) Both A and R are true and R explains A
(b) Both A and R are true but R does not explain A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Without readable records, we rely on buildings and objects.
So we cannot say for certain who ruled; R explains A.

Answer: (a) Both A and R are true and R explains A.

Example 3: Picture-based: the dancing girl · 3 marks · Source-basedExam level

A picture shows a small metal figure of a girl with one hand on her hip and many bangles on her arm. (i) Identify it and its site. (ii) Name the metal and the technique used. (iii) What does it reveal?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

(i) The dancing girl from Mohenjo-daro.
(ii) Bronze; lost-wax casting.
(iii) Advanced metal-working skill and an interest in ornaments and art.

Answer: (i) The dancing girl, Mohenjo-daro. (ii) Bronze, made by the lost-wax process. (iii) It shows the Harappans' skill in metal casting and their love of ornaments and art.

Example 4: Citadel and lower town · 3 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

How did the Harappan citadel differ from the lower town? What might this division tell us about Harappan society?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Citadel: raised on a platform, fortified, in the west, with public buildings such as the Great Bath and granaries.
Lower town: larger, in the east, with residential houses and workshops.
Division suggests a ruling or priestly group in the citadel, and social differences in society.

Answer: The citadel was a raised, walled area in the west holding public buildings; the lower town in the east held most homes and workshops. This suggests that a ruling or priestly group controlled important public functions and that society had different classes.

Example 5: A central authority? · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

No palace or royal tomb has been found at Harappan sites. Yet historians believe there was some central authority. Give three pieces of evidence for this view.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Uniform town planning and standard brick sizes across distant sites.
Standard weights and measures used everywhere.
Huge public works such as granaries, the Great Bath and citywide drainage that needed organised labour.

Answer: (1) The same grid plan and 1:2:4 bricks appear at sites hundreds of kilometres apart. (2) A single system of weights was used throughout. (3) Granaries, the Great Bath and citywide drains needed planning and organised labour. Such uniformity is hard to explain without some central authority.

Example 6: Trade network · 4 marks · Long answerHarder exam level

Explain how the Harappans obtained raw materials and traded with other lands. Give four points.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Copper from Rajasthan, carnelian and shell from Gujarat, timber from the hills.
Standard weights and seals regulated exchange.
Seals and beads found in Mesopotamia; Mesopotamian texts mention Meluhha.
Transport by bullock carts and boats; dockyard at Lothal; barter as no coins have been found.

Answer: (1) Raw materials came from many regions: copper from Rajasthan, shell and carnelian from Gujarat. (2) Standard weights and seals regulated trade. (3) Harappan seals and beads in Mesopotamia and references to Meluhha show foreign trade. (4) Goods moved by carts and boats, with a dockyard at Lothal; trade was probably by barter.

Example 7: Weighing the theories of decline · 4 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

Why do historians reject a single explanation for the decline of the Harappan Civilisation? Support your answer with two examples.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

The civilisation covered a vast area, and sites declined at different times and in different ways.
Example 1: silt layers suggest flooding at Mohenjo-daro, which cannot explain decline at sites far from the Indus.
Example 2: drying of the Ghaggar-Hakra affected sites in that valley, but not every region.
So a combination of environmental, economic and other causes is more likely.

Answer: Because the civilisation was spread over a huge area and its cities declined gradually and unevenly. Floods may explain damage at Mohenjo-daro but not at distant sites; the drying of the Ghaggar-Hakra explains abandonment in that valley but not elsewhere. Historians therefore see several causes, environmental and economic, working together.

Case-study practice (Section B style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In a school exam set on the board pattern this is a 10-mark question split into 3 + 3 + 4 marks.

A tank of brick

Study the picture description and answer the questions.

The picture shows a large rectangular brick tank with flights of steps at the two narrow ends, surrounded by a brick corridor and small rooms. It stands on a raised mound in the western part of an excavated city on the Indus.

(i) · 3 marks
Identify the structure and the city. What part of the city is the 'raised mound' called?
Answer
Answer: The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro. The raised mound is the citadel.
1 mark each.
(ii) · 3 marks
How did the builders make the tank watertight? What was it probably used for?
Answer
Answer: Burnt bricks were laid with gypsum mortar and a layer of bitumen to stop leaking. It was probably used for ritual or ceremonial bathing.
2 marks for the method, 1 for the use.
(iii) · 4 marks
Name two other structures found on the citadel or in the city, and what each shows.
Answer
Answer: The granary shows agricultural surplus and central storage; the covered drainage system shows civic planning and concern for hygiene. (Also: assembly hall; houses with wells.)
1 mark per structure, 1 mark per significance.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

State two features of the Harappan drainage system. (2 marks) (2 marks)

Step	Marks
House drains connected to street drains.	1
Street drains covered with bricks or stones, with inspection holes.	1

What do the seals tell us about the Harappans? (3 marks) (3 marks)

Step	Marks
Trade: used to mark goods.	1
Contacts with Mesopotamia.	1
Art, animals known and the script.	1

Explain four causes of the decline of the Harappan Civilisation. (4 marks) (4 marks)

Step	Marks
Floods.	1
Drying or shifting of rivers.	1
Climate change.	1
Deforestation, decline of trade or earthquakes.	1

Where students lose marks in The Harappan Civilisation

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

Mistake: Placing the dockyard at Mohenjo-daro or Harappa
Students attach every famous find to the two big cities.
Do this: Dockyard = Lothal, Gujarat.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Describing the dancing girl as made of stone or terracotta
Confused with the bearded man.
Wrong working
The dancing girl is a stone statue.
Right working
The dancing girl is bronze (lost-wax casting); the bearded man is steatite.
Do this: Girl = bronze, man = stone.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Stating the Aryan invasion as the proven cause of decline
Older books present it as fact.
Wrong working
The Aryans destroyed the Harappan cities.
Right working
External attack is one older theory; historians today find little evidence for it and stress floods, river changes, climate and trade.
Do this: Present causes as theories, neutrally.
Usually costs: 1-2 marks.
Mistake: Listing features without linking them to evidence
Students write 'they were good planners' without details.
Do this: Give the specific feature: grid streets, covered drains, 1:2:4 bricks.
Usually costs: Up to 2 marks in a 4-mark answer.

Practice questions on The Harappan Civilisation

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

Q1 · 1 mark · MCQExam level
The bearded man statue was found at:
(a) Harappa
(b) Mohenjo-daro
(c) Lothal
(d) Dholavira
Hint
Same city as the Great Bath.
Answer
(b) Mohenjo-daro.
Q2 · 1 mark · MCQExam level
Harappan seals were mostly made of:
(a) bronze
(b) terracotta
(c) steatite
(d) gold
Hint
Soapstone.
Answer
(c) steatite.
Q3 · 1 mark · MCQHarder exam level
Which of these is NOT true of the Harappan script?
(a) It is pictographic
(b) It is usually read from right to left
(c) It has been fully deciphered
(d) It appears on seals
Hint
Can we read it?
Answer
(c) It has been fully deciphered.
Q4 · 2 marks · Very short answerExam level
Describe the bearded man statue in two points.
Hint
Material, dress.
Answer
(1) A steatite bust from Mohenjo-daro of a bearded man with half-closed eyes and a headband. (2) He wears a shawl with a trefoil pattern over the left shoulder, suggesting an important person, sometimes called a 'priest-king'.
Q5 · 2 marks · Very short answerHarder exam level
Why are the granaries considered important evidence of Harappan economy?
Hint
Surplus and authority.
Answer
They show that farmers produced more grain than they needed, and that an authority collected, stored and distributed this surplus, possibly as tax.
Q6 · 2 marks · Very short answerHarder exam level
Give two reasons why historians believe the Harappans paid attention to public hygiene.
Hint
Drains and bathrooms.
Answer
(1) Covered street drains connected to house drains, with holes for cleaning. (2) Most houses had bathrooms and wells; refuse pits are also found.
Q7 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
The Harappan cities had no temples that we can identify, unlike Mesopotamia. What does this suggest about the limits of our knowledge?
Hint
Evidence is material only.
Answer
Our ideas about Harappan religion come only from objects such as seals, figurines and the Great Bath, which can be interpreted in different ways. Without a readable script or clear temple buildings, statements about their beliefs and rulers remain informed guesses.
Q8 · 3 marks · Short answerExam level
Explain the use of seals and of standard weights in Harappan trade.
Hint
Marking and measuring.
Answer
Seals were stamped on clay sealings attached to goods to show ownership or origin and to protect packages. Standard cubical chert weights ensured that goods were measured fairly and uniformly across the region.
Q9 · 2 marks · Very short answerHOTS / competency
Compare the Harappan drainage system with the town planning of a modern city. Give one similarity and one difference.
Hint
Covered drains; materials.
Answer
Similarity: both connect house drains to covered public drains to keep streets clean. Difference: Harappan drains were of brick with stone covers and manholes, whereas modern cities use pipes and treatment plants (any reasonable difference).
Q10 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder exam level
Describe four features of a Harappan house.
Hint
Bricks, courtyard, well, entrance.
Answer
(1) Built of standard burnt bricks. (2) Rooms arranged around an open courtyard. (3) Many had their own well and bathroom connected to the street drain. (4) Doors usually opened onto side lanes, and few windows faced the main street; some had staircases to an upper floor.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1.Where was the Great Bath found?Show answer
Mohenjo-daro.
2.Which site had a dockyard?Show answer
Lothal (Gujarat).
3.Material of the dancing girl?Show answer
Bronze.
4.Material of most seals?Show answer
Steatite (soapstone).
5.Ratio of Harappan bricks?Show answer
1 : 2 : 4.
6.Has the Harappan script been deciphered?Show answer
No.

Best order to study it

Learn the eight sources with site, material and significance.
Learn town planning: grid, citadel, bricks, drains, houses.
Learn trade: raw materials, weights, seals, Mesopotamia, Lothal.
Learn art and craft: pottery, bronze, sculpture, beads.
Learn the theories of decline and write them neutrally.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

Mature phase about 2600-1900 B.C.; Harappa (Ravi), Mohenjo-daro (Indus), Lothal (Gujarat).
Great Bath: watertight brick tank, ritual bathing; on the citadel of Mohenjo-daro.
Citadel (west, raised, public buildings) and lower town (east, houses).
Seals: steatite, animals + script, trade; found in Mesopotamia.
Bearded man: steatite, trefoil shawl. Dancing girl: bronze, lost-wax.
Grid streets, 1:2:4 bricks, covered drains, courtyard houses, granaries.
Decline: floods, rivers drying, climate, deforestation, trade decline; invasion theory now doubted.

The Harappan Civilisation: frequently asked questions

Why is it called the Harappan Civilisation and not only the Indus Valley Civilisation?

Harappa was the first site to be excavated, and by convention a culture is named after its first-discovered site. Since many sites lie far from the Indus, 'Harappan' is the more accurate name.

Do I need to learn the dates of excavation?

The syllabus focuses on sources, planning, trade, crafts and decline. Knowing that Harappa (1921) and Mohenjo-daro (1922) were excavated in the 1920s is useful background.

Was the bearded man really a priest-king?

The name is a modern label. The statue suggests an important person, but without readable records we cannot be sure of his role.

Based on: CISCE ICSE 2028 History, Civics and Geography (50): History and Civics syllabus (Classes IX and X); CISCE Regulations for ICSE Examination Year 2028