The Cholas ICSE Class 9: Kings, Administration and Art

What The Cholas is about

Weightage: CISCE publishes no chapter weightage and no question-paper layout for ICSE Class 9 History and Civics. Class IX is examined by your school: one 80-mark paper of 2 hours plus 20 marks of internal assessment. The Cholas is History topic 7(a), Medieval India, of the 2028 syllabus.Source: CISCE ICSE 2028 History and Civics syllabus, Class IX

Key concepts

Sources: inscriptions

Chola history is known mainly from thousands of inscriptions in Tamil and Sanskrit on temple walls and copper plates.

• Temple inscriptions record royal orders, gifts to temples, land grants and the work of village assemblies.
• Copper-plate grants (such as the Anbil plates and the Tiruvalangadu plates) record land grants and give the king's genealogy and achievements.
• Royal inscriptions often begin with a meykkirti, a poetic introduction listing the king's conquests; Rajaraja I began this practice.
• The Uttaramerur inscriptions (in present-day Tamil Nadu), of the reign of Parantaka I in the early 10th century, describe in detail how the village sabha elected its committees.

Value: they give dates, names, conquests, taxes, temple economy and local government. Limits: meykkirtis praise the king and may exaggerate victories.

Worked example

(3 marks) Why are inscriptions the most important source for Chola history? Give three reasons.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. They record the kings' names, genealogy and conquests (meykkirtis, copper plates) - 1 mark.
2. They describe administration, taxes and land grants - 1 mark.
3. The Uttaramerur inscriptions describe village assemblies and their elections in detail - 1 mark.

Answer: Chola inscriptions on temple walls and copper plates record the kings, their genealogies and conquests; they describe land grants, taxes and temple endowments; and the Uttaramerur inscriptions describe exactly how village assemblies chose their committees, information no other source gives.

Source: the Brihadishwara Temple

The Brihadishwara (Rajarajeshwaram) Temple at Thanjavur was built by Rajaraja I and completed around A.D. 1010. It is dedicated to Shiva.

• Its vimana (tower over the sanctum) rises to about 66 metres, one of the tallest of its time.
• The top is crowned by a huge stone cupola; tradition says it was raised by a long earthen ramp.
• A large monolithic Nandi faces the shrine.
• The walls carry inscriptions recording gifts to the temple and the names of dancers, musicians and staff it supported; the inner passages have Chola paintings.

As a source it shows the wealth and power of the king, skill in architecture and engineering, and the temple's role as an economic and social centre. With other Chola temples it is part of the UNESCO World Heritage site 'Great Living Chola Temples'.

Worked example

(3 marks) Who built the Brihadishwara Temple? State two things it tells us about the Cholas.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Built by Rajaraja I at Thanjavur, completed about A.D. 1010 - 1 mark.
2. Its huge vimana shows wealth, royal power and engineering skill - 1 mark.
3. Its inscriptions show the temple as an economic and social centre supporting many people - 1 mark.

Answer: Rajaraja I built it at Thanjavur around A.D. 1010. Its 66-metre vimana shows the wealth, power and engineering skill of the Cholas, and its inscriptions show that the temple supported priests, dancers, musicians and craftsmen and was a centre of economic and social life.

Kings in chronological order

1. Vijayalaya (mid-9th century): captured Thanjavur and founded the later (imperial) Chola dynasty.
2. Aditya I: extended Chola power by defeating the Pallavas.
3. Parantaka I (early 10th century): conquered Madurai from the Pandyas; the Uttaramerur inscriptions belong to his reign.
4. Rajaraja I (A.D. 985-1014): defeated the Cheras and Pandyas, conquered northern Sri Lanka and the Maldives, organised a land survey and built the Brihadishwara Temple.
5. Rajendra I (A.D. 1014-1044): led an expedition to the Ganga, took the title Gangaikonda Chola and built a new capital, Gangaikonda Cholapuram; sent a naval expedition against Srivijaya in South-East Asia.
6. Kulottunga I (late 11th to early 12th century): a later strong ruler who sent a trade mission to China.
The dynasty declined in the 13th century as the Pandyas and others rose.

Worked example

(2 marks) Arrange in order: Rajendra I, Vijayalaya, Rajaraja I, Parantaka I.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Vijayalaya → Parantaka I - 1 mark.
2. → Rajaraja I → Rajendra I - 1 mark.

Answer: Vijayalaya, Parantaka I, Rajaraja I, Rajendra I.

Central and provincial administration

King: the king held supreme power and was assisted by ministers and officials. Kingship was hereditary; the heir was often made co-ruler (yuvaraja) during the father's reign.

Divisions: the empire was divided into provinces called mandalams, often governed by princes. Each mandalam was divided into valanadus, each valanadu into nadus (groups of villages), and the nadu into villages (ur).

Revenue: land revenue was the main income; Rajaraja I had land surveyed to fix it. There were also taxes on trade, professions and other activities.

Army and navy: the Cholas kept a large army of infantry, cavalry and elephants and a strong navy, which allowed overseas campaigns to Sri Lanka, the Maldives and South-East Asia.

Worked example

(3 marks) Describe the territorial divisions of the Chola empire.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Empire divided into mandalams (provinces) - 1 mark.
2. Mandalams into valanadus, valanadus into nadus - 1 mark.
3. Nadus into villages (ur), the basic unit with assemblies - 1 mark.

Answer: The empire was divided into mandalams (provinces), each mandalam into valanadus, each valanadu into nadus and each nadu into villages, which were the basic units with their own assemblies.

Village administration: ur, sabha and Uttaramerur

Villages managed their own affairs through assemblies:

• the ur: assembly of landholders in ordinary villages;
• the sabha (mahasabha): assembly of Brahmana villages (brahmadeyas), which were granted to Brahmanas;
• the nagaram: association of merchants in trading centres.

The Uttaramerur inscriptions describe the sabha's rules.
Eligibility to be a member of a committee: owning land on which tax was paid; owning a house on one's own site; age between 35 and 70; knowledge of the Vedas or other texts; being honest and good at business.
Disqualification: anyone who had served on a committee in the previous three years; anyone who had failed to submit accounts, and his relatives; anyone guilty of certain offences.
Selection by kudavolai (lot): names of eligible men from each ward were written on palm-leaf tickets and put into a pot; a young boy drew out the tickets, and those drawn were chosen.
Committees (variyams): for example, the garden committee, the tank committee and the annual committee, managing gardens, irrigation, justice and temple affairs.
The assemblies collected taxes, settled disputes, looked after tanks and roads and managed temple lands.

Worked example

(4 marks) Describe how members of the village sabha committees were selected according to the Uttaramerur inscriptions.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Eligibility: owned tax-paying land and a house; aged 35 to 70 - 1 mark.
2. Knowledge of the Vedas; honesty and ability in business - 1 mark.
3. Disqualified: served in the last three years; failed to submit accounts (and relatives) - 1 mark.
4. Kudavolai: names on palm leaves in a pot, drawn by a young boy - 1 mark.

Answer: Candidates had to own tax-paying land and a house, be between 35 and 70, know the Vedas and be honest and capable. Those who had served on a committee in the last three years, or had failed to submit accounts (and their relatives), were barred. Names of eligible men were written on palm leaves, placed in a pot, and a young boy drew the names: the kudavolai system.

Chola art

Temple architecture: the Cholas perfected the Dravidian style. Features: a pyramid-like vimana over the sanctum (garbhagriha), a pillared hall (mandapa), large courtyards enclosed by walls, and gateways (gopurams), which became very large in later centuries. Examples: the Brihadishwara Temple at Thanjavur (Rajaraja I), the temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Rajendra I) and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram.

Bronze sculpture: Chola artisans cast exquisite bronze images by the lost-wax process. The most famous is the Nataraja: Shiva as the cosmic dancer, in a ring of fire, dancing on a dwarf that represents ignorance. Images of Parvati, saints and other deities were carried in temple processions.

Painting and stone sculpture: wall paintings in the Brihadishwara Temple; carved stone figures on temple walls.

Temples as centres of life: temples owned land, employed priests, musicians, dancers and craftsmen, and were centres of education, music and festivals.

Worked example

(3 marks) Describe the Nataraja bronze and the technique used to make Chola bronzes.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Nataraja: Shiva as the cosmic dancer in a ring of fire - 1 mark.
2. Dancing on a dwarf representing ignorance - 1 mark.
3. Made by the lost-wax process - 1 mark.

Answer: The Nataraja shows Shiva as the lord of dance, surrounded by a ring of flames, dancing on a dwarf who stands for ignorance. Chola bronzes were cast by the lost-wax process, in which a wax model is coated in clay, the wax melted out and molten metal poured in.

The Cholas in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• Chola Administration, Village Assemblies and Art

The Cholas: key facts

Founder of imperial Cholas

Vijayalaya, mid-9th century; captured Thanjavur

Rajaraja I

A.D. 985-1014

Brihadishwara Temple (completed about 1010); Sri Lanka, Maldives.

Rajendra I

A.D. 1014-1044

Gangaikonda Chola; Gangaikonda Cholapuram; Srivijaya expedition.

Divisions

1. 1.Mandalam
2. 2.valanadu
3. 3.nadu
4. 4.village (ur)

Village bodies

Ur (landholders), sabha (Brahmana villages), nagaram (merchants)

Committees: variyams.

Uttaramerur rules

Age 35-70; land + house; Vedic learning; kudavolai

Barred: served in last 3 years; no accounts.

How the school exam asks The Cholas

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember The Cholas

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• Very Proud Royal Rulers

  Vijayalaya, Parantaka I, Rajaraja I, Rajendra I.

  Use it when: Order of kings.

• M-V-N-U

  Mandalam, Valanadu, Nadu, Ur: from map to village.

  Use it when: Divisions.

• Father builds, son takes the Ganga

  Rajaraja built Thanjavur's temple; Rajendra marched to the Ganga and built Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

  Use it when: Separating the two great kings.

The Cholas: exam-level solved questions

Ordered from exam level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section B style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In a school exam set on the board pattern this is a 10-mark question split into 3 + 3 + 4 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in The Cholas

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Attributing the Brihadishwara Temple to Rajendra I

  Both kings built great temples.

  ✓Do this: Thanjavur: Rajaraja I; Gangaikonda Cholapuram: Rajendra I.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Calling kudavolai 'voting'

  Students equate election with ballots.

  Wrong working

  Villagers voted for committee members.

  Right working

  Eligible names were drawn by lot from a pot by a young boy.

  ✓Do this: Write 'selection by lot'.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Wrong age limits

  Numbers are easy to mix.

  ✓Do this: 35 to 70 years.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Describing only temples as Chola art

  Bronzes are forgotten.

  ✓Do this: Always include bronze sculpture (Nataraja) and lost-wax casting.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

Practice questions on The Cholas

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · MCQExam level

   Who took the title 'Gangaikonda Chola'?
   (a) Rajaraja I
   (b) Rajendra I
   (c) Parantaka I
   (d) Vijayalaya

   Hint

   Expedition to the Ganga.

   Answer

   (b) Rajendra I.

2. Q2 · 1 mark · MCQHarder exam level

   The assembly of merchants in Chola times was called the:
   (a) ur
   (b) sabha
   (c) nagaram
   (d) nadu

   Hint

   Trading towns.

   Answer

   (c) nagaram.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · Very short answerExam level

   Who founded the imperial Chola dynasty?

   Hint

   Captured Thanjavur.

   Answer

   Vijayalaya.

4. Q4 · 2 marks · Very short answerHarder exam level

   What was a meykkirti?

   Hint

   Start of royal inscriptions.

   Answer

   A poetic introduction at the beginning of Chola royal inscriptions listing the king's achievements and conquests; Rajaraja I began the practice.

5. Q5 · 2 marks · Very short answerExam level

   Mention two features of Dravidian temple architecture seen in Chola temples.

   Hint

   Tower and gateway.

   Answer

   A tall pyramid-shaped vimana over the sanctum, and enclosure walls with gateways (gopurams); also pillared mandapas.

6. Q6 · 2 marks · Very short answerHOTS / competency

   Why did the Uttaramerur rules disqualify relatives of a person who had not submitted accounts?

   Hint

   Family networks.

   Answer

   To stop dishonest members from keeping control through their families and covering up misuse of funds; it made the whole family pay for one member's failure to be accountable.

7. Q7 · 3 marks · Short answerExam level

   State three achievements of Rajaraja I.

   Hint

   Conquests, survey, temple.

   Answer

   (1) Defeated the Cheras and Pandyas and conquered northern Sri Lanka and the Maldives. (2) Ordered a survey of land to fix revenue. (3) Built the Brihadishwara Temple at Thanjavur.

8. Q8 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   Explain the role of temples in Chola society.

   Hint

   Religion, economy, culture.

   Answer

   Temples were centres of worship and festivals; they owned land and received gifts, employing priests, musicians, dancers, cooks and craftsmen; and they promoted education, music, dance and art.

9. Q9 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   Describe the process of making a Chola bronze by the lost-wax method.

   Hint

   Wax, clay, metal.

   Answer

   A wax model of the image is made and covered with clay; the clay is heated so that the wax melts and runs out through a hole; molten bronze is poured into the hollow mould; when it cools, the clay is broken and the image is finished by hand.

10. Q10 · 2 marks · Very short answerHOTS / competency

    Rajendra I moved his capital from Thanjavur to Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Suggest two reasons for such a move.

    Hint

    Victory symbol; strategy.

    Answer

    To celebrate and display his victory in the Ganga expedition through a new city; and to have a capital better placed to control the northern parts of the empire (any reasonable reasons).

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.Capital of Rajaraja I?Show answer

   Thanjavur.

2. 2.Capital built by Rajendra I?Show answer

   Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

3. 3.Which inscriptions describe village elections?Show answer

   The Uttaramerur inscriptions (reign of Parantaka I).

4. 4.What is a nadu?Show answer

   A group of villages, a unit below the valanadu.

5. 5.Age limits for committee members?Show answer

   35 to 70 years.

6. 6.Most famous Chola bronze?Show answer

   Nataraja.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Sources: temple and copper-plate inscriptions; meykkirtis; Uttaramerur; Brihadishwara Temple.
• ☐Kings: Vijayalaya → Aditya I → Parantaka I → Rajaraja I (985-1014) → Rajendra I (1014-1044) → Kulottunga I.
• ☐Brihadishwara: Rajaraja I, Thanjavur, about 1010, Shiva, 66 m vimana, Nandi.
• ☐Divisions: mandalam, valanadu, nadu, ur.
• ☐Assemblies: ur, sabha, nagaram; Uttaramerur: land, house, 35-70, Vedas; barred if served in 3 years or no accounts; kudavolai; variyams.
• ☐Art: Dravidian temples, lost-wax bronzes (Nataraja), paintings; temples as economic centres.

The Cholas: frequently asked questions