State and Society up to 1000 CE Class 9: Notes and Questions

What State and Society up to 1000 CE is about

Weightage: CBSE has not yet published marks for Class 9 Social Science 2026-27: its syllabus says the course structure "will be provided shortly". Class 9 is a school examination (80 marks annual paper + 20 internal assessment), so your school sets the paper.Source: CBSE Social Science syllabus, Class IX 2026-27

Key concepts

Society, State and the sources

NCERT section Understanding Early Indian State and Society

Society is a system of relationships among people who share a territory, culture and sense of belonging. It is made of units like families, institutions like marriage, and customs; it is regulated mainly by customs, not formal laws.

A State is an organised political system based on rules and laws, with defined rights and duties of rulers and subjects, ways of governing and institutions to enforce order. Such systems grew as societies became larger and more complex.

Sources: from at least the second millennium BCE, literary sources (the Ṛigveda being the earliest) add to archaeology. The Vedic literature was oral for centuries before being written. Each Veda has four parts: Samhitā (hymns), Brāhmaṇa (prose explanations of rituals), Āraṇyaka (forest philosophy) and Upaniṣhad (the Self, Ātman, and the Ultimate, Brāhmaṇ). The four Vedas are Ṛig (1,028 hymns), Sāma (hymns arranged for singing; basis of the seven svaras), Yajur (ritual) and Atharva (hymns against evil and for healing). The earliest Ṛigvedic sections were composed in the Sapta-Sindhu region (the Indus, its five tributaries and the Sarasvatī).

Worked example

Distinguish between society and State as explained in the chapter. (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Society: relationships among people sharing territory and culture; regulated by customs.
2. State: organised political system based on rules and laws with institutions to enforce them.

Answer: Society is a system of social relationships among people who share a territory, culture and sense of belonging; it is regulated mainly by customs and practices. A State is an organised political system based on rules and laws, with defined rights and duties of rulers and subjects and institutions that enforce law and order.

Vedic polity: jana, rājā and assemblies

NCERT section Political Institutions in the Vedic Period

Early Vedic society was organised into janas (clans bound by kinship). The Ṛigveda mentions about thirty janas; five (Yadu, Turvaśha, Puru, Anu, Druhyu) were the pañchajana. The name Bharata first appears in the Ṛigveda for the Bharata jana.

The rājā was mainly a clan chief who led in war and protected his people. Three assemblies are mentioned (Ṛigveda and Atharvaveda):

• Sabhā: smaller; select elites; mainly judicial.
• Samiti: larger; represented the broader population; policy and political affairs.
• Vidhata: a popular gathering of the community; discussed warfare and politics.

The chapter asks you to compare this with modern democracies, where leaders are checked by constitutions and parliaments: the assemblies suggest early ideas of people's participation.

Social units: kula (family) → grāma (village of several families) → viśha (group of villages, under a viśhapati) → jana (under the rājā).

Worked example

How did the sabhā and samiti limit the power of the rājā? Name a modern institution with a similar role. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Sabhā: judicial body of elites.
2. Samiti: larger body representing people; policy decisions.
3. The rājā had to work with them, so power was shared; today Parliament (and courts) check the executive.

Answer: The sabhā, a smaller body of elites, handled judicial matters, and the samiti, a larger body representing the people, took part in policy and political decisions. Because the rājā had to consult these assemblies, he did not rule alone. Today, Parliament checks the government in a similar way (and courts settle disputes, like the sabhā's judicial role).

From janapadas to mahājanapadas and empires

NCERT section Early Kingdoms and Republics

Janapada literally means the place where a jana 'set its feet': identity shifted from kinship to territory (about 1000-600 BCE). Control over land, farming and trade routes became important, so administration grew more complex.

Mahājanapadas (bigger units, about 600 BCE onwards): sources speak of sixteen. Magadha (Bihar) became most powerful because of its strategic location, fertile plains and strong rulers; its expansion led to the Mauryan Empire (founded 321 BCE by Chandragupta Maurya).

Archaeology of the first millennium BCE in the Ganga region shows iron tools, more grain varieties (especially paddy) and pottery: PGW (Painted Grey Ware) and later the glossy NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware). The Ganga plains became the main centre of later Vedic culture.

Forms of state: monarchies (rājyas) and republics (gaṇas or saṁghas).

South: the Satavāhanas in the Deccan (about 500 years, 2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE); further south the Cholas (lower Kaveri), Pandyas (Tamraparni and Vaigai), Keralaputras (Cheras) and Satiyaputras, mentioned in Aśhoka's inscriptions. Sangam literature (300 BCE-300 CE) describes the three crowned kings, the Vendar of Tamilakam: Chola (tiger emblem), Chera (bow), Pandya (fish).

Worked example

Why did Magadha emerge as the most powerful mahājanapada? (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Strategic location.
2. Fertile plains: rich agriculture and revenue.
3. Strong rulers who expanded control; led to the Mauryan Empire.

Answer: Magadha, in present-day Bihar, had a strategic location, fertile plains that produced rich harvests and revenue, and strong rulers who steadily brought neighbouring regions under control. This expansion eventually produced the Mauryan Empire.

Duties of the king and the pan-Indian ideal

NCERT section Duties and Ideals of the King

From the 6th century BCE kings used titles like rājā, mahārāja or samrāṭ. Texts describe their duties:

• The Arthaśhāstra: officers follow an energetic king.
• The Yajurveda coronation oath: judge strong and weak impartially, protect from calamities, do good to people.
• The Śhānti Parva of the Mahābhārata: ethical conduct and justice.
• The king protected people from outside threats and internal disorder and gave justice in crimes such as robbery and theft.
• Kingship was mostly hereditary, but there are references to kings being elected or expelled, so royal power was not always absolute.

Pan-Indian awareness: rulers thought in terms of the whole subcontinent through terms like Jambudvīpa, Bhāratavarṣha, the Aśhvamedha and Rājasūya yajñas, Prithivi and chakravarti kśhetra. Aśhoka spoke of changes in Jambudvīpa; the Arthaśhāstra defines Prithivi as the land between the Himalayas and the sea and equates it with the domain of a universal ruler. The Chera king Nedunjeral Adan is said to have campaigned to the Himalayas; the Chola Rajendra I took the title Gangaikonda (11th century CE).

Worked example

How do terms like Jambudvīpa and chakravarti kśhetra show a pan-Indian political awareness? (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. These terms refer to the whole subcontinent, not one kingdom.
2. Arthaśhāstra: Prithivi = land between the Himalayas and the sea = chakravarti kśhetra.
3. Examples: Aśhoka on Jambudvīpa; Nedunjeral Adan; Rajendra I Gangaikonda.

Answer: These terms describe a territory roughly equal to the Indian subcontinent. The Arthaśhāstra defines Prithivi as the land between the Himalayas and the sea and equates it with the chakravarti kśhetra, the domain of a universal ruler. Aśhoka referred to Jambudvīpa in his edicts, and southern rulers such as Nedunjeral Adan and Rajendra I (Gangaikonda) claimed conquests stretching north. So kings imagined authority over the whole subcontinent.

Council of ministers and the Saptāṅga

NCERT section Council of Ministers

Kauṭilya saw the state as an organic whole of seven parts (Saptāṅga):
1. the king (swāmi)
2. councillors, ministers and officials (amātya)
3. the territory with its people (janapada)
4. fortified towns (durga)
5. the treasury (koṣha)
6. forces of defence and law and order (daṇḍa)
7. allies (mitra)

The state works only when these parts are well integrated. The Arthaśhāstra's line that 'one wheel does not move the carriage' means the king needs cooperation.

The mantri-pariṣhad (council of ministers) of elder statesmen advised the king; it usually included the treasurer, chief tax collector, chief legal adviser and commander-in-chief. An Aśhokan inscription shows the council taking decisions in the emperor's absence, in public interest.

Junagadh rock (Girnar, Gujarat) carries records of three dynasties over about 700 years: Aśhoka's edicts (Prakrit), Rudradaman I (about 150 CE, Sanskrit; repair of the Sudarshana Lake) and Skandagupta (5th century CE; restoration of the lake).

Worked example

What did Kauṭilya mean by Saptāṅga? Why must the seven parts be integrated? (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Saptāṅga = seven constituents of the state.
2. List them.
3. Integration: the state is an organic whole; one weak part weakens all ('one wheel does not move the carriage').

Answer: Saptāṅga means the seven constituents of the state: king, ministers, territory with people, forts, treasury, army and allies. Kauṭilya treated the state as one living body, so it works only if all parts support each other; a strong king without a treasury or allies, for example, cannot govern well.

Administration of empires and village self-government

NCERT section How Were Empires Administered?

Kingdoms were divided into provinces → divisions → districts → villages.

• Satavāhanas: āḥāras (divisions) with amātyas; villages under a grāmika (headman).
• District officers often consulted bankers, caravan leaders, artisans and scribes; cities had governors for revenue and order.
• 300-800 CE: decentralisation. Provinces: bhukti (north), maṇḍala/maṇḍalam (south); divisions: viṣhaya/bhoga (north), koṭṭam/valanāḍu (south); districts: adhiṣhṭhāna/paṭṭana (north), nāḍu (south).
• Guptas: kept earlier forms; new sāndhivigrahika (minister of peace and war); kumārāmātyas as local or provincial officers. The Damodarpur copper plates (Kumaragupta I) show a district office of five: head officer, chief banker, chief caravan trader, chief artisan and chief revenue officer.
• Pallavas (c. 275-897 CE): tax-free Brahmadeya villages; village committees (variyams) for irrigation, gardens, temples.
• Chālukyas of Badami (c. 543-753 CE): land grants to agrahārams (Aihole, Badami became learning centres).
• Tripartite struggle for Kannauj: Gurjara-Pratihāras, Pālas and Rāṣhṭrakūṭas.
• Imperial Cholas (9th-11th century): maṇḍalams → valanāḍus → nāḍus → ūrs; village assemblies handled revenue, land, irrigation, roads and records.

Uttaramerur inscription (Parantaka I, 10th century, Kanchipuram district): the kudavolai ('ballot pot') system. Names on palm leaves went into a pot; a child drew them publicly; those chosen formed committees (variyams) such as the tank committee. Candidates needed 'honest earnings'.

Worked example

Describe the kudavolai system recorded in the Uttaramerur inscription. Why was it considered fair? (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Names of eligible candidates written on palm leaves, put in a pot.
2. A child drew leaves one by one at a public gathering, often at a temple.
3. Fairness: open process, random draw, eligibility rules (honest earnings); members formed committees.

Answer: Names of eligible candidates were written on palm leaves and placed in a large pot. At a public gathering, often at a temple, a young child drew the leaves one by one to select members of the village assembly, who were then divided into committees (variyams) for irrigation, justice and taxes. The draw happened in full view of everyone and candidates had to meet conditions such as honest earnings, which made it fair.

Ethics: samatva, ṛita and dharma

NCERT section Ethics: The Foundation of Law and Life

Indian ethical thought guided both state and society:

• Samatva (sameness): all bodies are of the same matter and all consciousness comes from one supreme consciousness. The epics often critique discrimination; a good ruler works for the welfare of all beings.
• Ṛita (Ṛigveda): an all-pervading cosmic order, harmony in nature and society.
• Dharma: not religion, but duty, obligation, righteousness and moral conduct. From the root dhri (to uphold); Bhishma says dharma is what upholds beings. In the sense of natural law, 'the dharma of iron is to sink and of wood to float'. Buddhism uses dhamma, its Pāli form.

In practice: Aśhoka's dhamma stressed moral conduct, family respect, non-violence and compassion; Uttaramerur required honest candidates; Kāmandaka's Nītisāra and Bāṇabhaṭṭa's Kādambarī reflect on good kingship.

Worked example

Explain the meaning of dharma as used in this chapter. Is it the same as religion? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Dharma = duty, obligation, righteousness, moral conduct.
2. Not religion; a way of life based on ethical values and roles.

Answer: Dharma here means duty, obligation, righteousness and moral conduct: a way of life in which people act ethically according to their roles and responsibilities. It does not mean religion.

Varṇa, jāti and social mobility

NCERT section Social Structures and Everyday Life

The chapter presents this carefully:

• Early Vedic texts show no fixed status by birth; identity was shaped by many factors (region, village, gotra, language, especially occupation). Occupations were flexible: a Ṛigveda verse (9.112.3) describes a poet whose father is a physician and mother grinds corn.
• The four categories (varṇa) first appear in the Puruṣhasūkta (Ṛigveda Book 10). They came to be linked with roles: brāhmaṇas (study, teaching, yajñas), kṣhatriyas/rājanya (war, protection, justice), vaiśhyas (farming, herding, trade), śhūdras (assisting others, but in practice also farming, herding, trade and crafts). The book calls the division functional; the Buddhist Sutta Nipāta says one is a brāhmaṇa by deeds, not birth.
• Over time flexibility reduced, and jāti emerged through intermarriage, migrating groups becoming endogamous (marrying within the group) and territorial differences. Varṇas were fixed at four; jātis kept multiplying.
• Mobility: rulers came from diverse backgrounds (Nandas, Mauryas, Śhuṅgas, Satavāhanas, Guptas and others); the Mandsaur inscription (473 CE) records silk weavers from Lata (Gujarat) moving to Dashapura (MP) and practising archery and astrology too; brāhmaṇas appear as land managers (Karitalai plates); in Tamilakam the Tolkappiyam and Pattinappalai show a society organised more by occupation.

Worked example

Distinguish between varṇa and jāti. What factors led to the formation of jātis? (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Varṇa: four broad functional categories, fixed in number.
2. Jāti: many groups, number not fixed; grew with new groups and occupations.
3. Factors: intermarriage among varṇas, endogamy of migrating communities, territorial differences.

Answer: Varṇa refers to four broad social categories (brāhmaṇa, kṣhatriya, vaiśhya, śhūdra) linked to functions; their number was fixed. Jāti refers to many smaller groups whose number kept growing as new communities and occupations appeared. Jātis formed through intermarriage among varṇas, migrating communities becoming endogamous, and regional differences.

Family, life stages, women and bhakti

NCERT section Family and Society

Family: in later Vedic times kula meant a household of kin; gotra was a patrilineal lineage traced to a ṛiṣhi and shaped marriage rules.

Four āśhramas: Brahmacharya (student), Gṛihastha (householder), Vānaprastha (forest life), Saṁnyāsa (renunciation), with the ṣhoḍaśha saṁskāras (sixteen rites of passage).

Four puruṣhārthas: dharma (righteousness), artha (material well-being), kāma (fulfilment of desires), mokṣha (liberation). Artha is good when guided by dharma.

Women: Vedic women took part in learning, rituals, chariot races and the sabhā; hymns are attributed to Apālā, Viśhvavārā, Ghoṣhā and Lopāmudrā; goddesses Uṣha and Aditi were revered. Later their position fluctuated and declined, yet examples remain: Prabhāvatī Gupta ruled as Vākāṭaka regent and issued land grants; women donors in post-Maurya inscriptions; Sangam women farmed, fished, spun and made salt; poets Avvaiyar and Vennikuyattiyar; Chola queen Sembiyan Mahādevī supported temples.

Religion: Vedic deities were tied to nature (sun, rain, fire, dawn); practices continue in festivals like Chhath and Makar Sankranti. Renunciants (parivrājaka, bhikṣhu, śhramaṇa) appeared mid-first millennium BCE. Worship of personal deities (Viṣhṇu, Śhiva, Śhakti) led to bhakti: direct devotion open to all regardless of class or gender. It became widespread in the 6th-century Tamil region through the 12 Āḻvārs (Viṣhṇu) and 63 Nāyanmārs (Śhiva).

Worked example

What was new about bhakti compared to earlier ritual worship? Who spread it in the Tamil region? (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Bhakti: direct connection with a personal god without elaborate Vedic rituals.
2. Open to all regardless of class or gender.
3. Spread by the twelve Āḻvārs (Viṣhṇu) and sixty-three Nāyanmārs (Śhiva) from the 6th century.

Answer: Bhakti offered a direct, personal relationship with a god such as Viṣhṇu or Śhiva without the elaborate rituals of the Vedas, and it was open to everyone whatever their class or gender. In the Tamil region from the 6th century it spread through the hymns of the twelve Āḻvārs, devoted to Viṣhṇu, and the sixty-three Nāyanmārs, devoted to Śhiva.

Education and centres of learning

NCERT section The Quest for Knowledge

Education was holistic: values such as truth, patience, humility, self-control and reverence for all beings, plus duties to parents, teachers and gods.

• Subjects: the Vedas, grammar, logic, philosophy, ethics, mathematics, science, medicine, astronomy, and arts like music, dance, painting, physical education and archery; also yoga, meditation and service to the guru.
• Guru-śhiṣhya paramparā: the guru guided students from ignorance to knowledge; the gurukula was the teacher's home and the student lived as family.
• Centres of learning (map Fig. 5.10): Takṣhaśhilā, Nālandā (427 CE in the book's timeline), Vallabhī (480 CE), Vikramśhilā (783-820 CE), Vārāṇasī, Ujjayinī, Kānchīpuram and others.
• Literary heritage: Pāṇini's Aṣhṭādhyāyī, Patañjali's Mahābhāṣhya; Charakasamhitā and Suśhrutasamhitā (medicine); Kālidāsa's poetry; Tirukkural, Silappadikāram, Maṇimēkalai; smṛiti texts on dharma and law.

Worked example

Why did education in early India stress both knowledge and moral values? How might this benefit society? (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Goal: preparation for life, not only a career.
2. Values: truth, self-control, duty under dharma.
3. Benefit: good character as the foundation of society; skilled and ethical citizens.

Answer: Early Indian education aimed to prepare students for the whole of life, so it joined subjects such as grammar, mathematics and medicine with values like truth, humility and self-control, and with duty under dharma. Society benefited because people were both skilled and of good character, which the chapter calls the foundation of society.

Economy: agriculture, irrigation, trade and guilds

NCERT section Economy

Agriculture and revenue (Mauryas): village land in individual holdings with common pastures and groves; forests cleared but some protected by law; basic land tax about one-sixth of produce; land classified for revenue (Kauṭilya). Crops: rice varieties, pulses, wheat, mustard, sugarcane and more. Later: the Milindapañho lists eight stages of farming; the Deccan's black soil suited cotton; Sangam texts praise Chera pepper, jackfruit and turmeric.

Irrigation: governor Puṣhyagupta (under Chandragupta Maurya) built a dam on Sudarshana Lake near Girnar (Junagadh inscription); Karikala Chola's Grand Anicut (Kallanai) is still in use.

Trade: Magadha traded textiles, gems, coral, pearls and metals; salt was state-regulated; the state protected routes and checked adulteration. Two great land routes by about the 6th century BCE: Uttarāpatha and Dakṣhiṇāpatha. Ports: Muziris, Kāveripaṭṭinam, Arikameḍu, Masulipaṭnam; trade with Rome grew by early CE.

Guilds (śhreṇīs): associations of people in the same craft or trade, important after the mahājanapadas; silver punch-marked coins appeared. The Jātakas mention eighteen guilds. Guilds fixed quality and prices, ran guild courts and acted as banks, financiers and trustees: the Nāśhik cave inscription records Uṣhavadāta's endowment of 3,000 kāhāpaṇas deposited with weavers' guilds at fixed interest for monks. The ivory workers' guild of Vidiśhā carved at the Sanchi stupa.

Worked example

Explain three functions of guilds in early India. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Regulated quality and fixed prices.
2. Guild courts supervised members' conduct.
3. Acted as banks: accepted deposits and paid interest (Nāśhik inscription).

Answer: 1. Guilds regulated the quality of goods and often fixed prices, protecting both artisans and buyers. 2. Guild courts supervised members' conduct and enforced professional standards. 3. They worked as banks and trustees: the Nāśhik cave inscription shows money deposited with weavers' guilds, which paid fixed interest used to support monks.

State and Society up to 1000 CE in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• Early Indian Polity: Janas, Mahajanapadas, Saptanga and Administration
• Society, Ethics, Education and Economy up to 1000 CE

State and Society up to 1000 CE: key facts

Political evolution

1. 1.Jana (kin, rājā + sabhā, samiti, vidhata)
2. 2.Janapada (territory, ~1000-600 BCE)
3. 3.16 Mahājanapadas (~600 BCE; Magadha)
4. 4.Empires (Mauryas 321 BCE, Guptas 320-550 CE, imperial Cholas 9th-11th c.)

Monarchies (rājyas) and republics (gaṇas/saṁghas) coexisted.

Three Vedic assemblies

• •Sabhā = small, elites, judicial
• •Samiti = large, people, policy
• •Vidhata = popular gathering, war and politics

Saptāṅga (seven limbs)

Swāmi, Amātya, Janapada, Durga, Koṣha, Daṇḍa, Mitra

King, ministers, territory, forts, treasury, army, allies.

Administrative units (300-800 CE)

1. 1.Province: bhukti (N) / maṇḍala (S)
2. 2.Division: viṣhaya, bhoga (N) / koṭṭam, valanāḍu (S)
3. 3.District: adhiṣhṭhāna (N) / nāḍu (S)
4. 4.Village

Chola: maṇḍalam → valanāḍu → nāḍu → ūr.

Āśhramas and puruṣhārthas

1. 1.Brahmacharya
2. 2.Gṛihastha
3. 3.Vānaprastha
4. 4.Saṁnyāsa | Dharma, Artha, Kāma, Mokṣha

Artha guided by dharma.

Key inscriptions

Junagadh	Aśhoka, Rudradaman I, Skandagupta; Sudarshana Lake
Uttaramerur	kudavolai
Damodarpur plates	district office of five
Mandsaur 473 CE	silk weavers
Nāśhik	guild deposits

Each proves a different point; match carefully.

Trade

Land routes	Uttarāpatha, Dakṣhiṇāpatha
Ports	Muziris, Kāveripaṭṭinam, Arikameḍu, Masulipaṭnam
Guilds	18 (Jātakas)

State and Society up to 1000 CE: map work

The places on the official CBSE map list for this chapter. Find each one on an outline map of India and practise marking it.

How the school exam asks State and Society up to 1000 CE

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember State and Society up to 1000 CE

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• Assemblies

  Sabhā = Select few, Settles cases; Samiti = Sab (all) people, Sets policy; Vidhata = Very public, War talk.

  Use it when: Distinguishing the assemblies.

• Saptāṅga

  'Smart Ministers Join Daring Kings' Defence Mission': Swāmi, Amātya, Janapada, Durga, Koṣha, Daṇḍa, Mitra.

  Use it when: Listing the seven limbs.

• Āśhramas

  'Boys Grow Very Strong': Brahmacharya, Gṛihastha, Vānaprastha, Saṁnyāsa.

  Use it when: Order of life stages.

• Puruṣhārthas

  DAKM: 'Do All Kind Moves': Dharma, Artha, Kāma, Mokṣha.

  Use it when: Four goals of life.

• Bhakti numbers

  12 Āḻvārs for Viṣhṇu (V has 1-2 strokes); 63 Nāyanmārs for Śhiva.

  Use it when: Tamil bhakti saints.

State and Society up to 1000 CE: exam-level solved questions

Ordered from exam level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section E style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In a school exam set on the board pattern this is a 4-mark question split into 1 + 1 + 2 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in State and Society up to 1000 CE

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Translating dharma as 'religion'

  Common everyday usage.

  Wrong working

  Dharma means the Hindu religion.

  Right working

  In the chapter, dharma means duty, obligation, righteousness and moral conduct.

  ✓Do this: Write 'duty and righteousness', and add 'not religion'.

  Usually costs: 1 mark in a definition.

• ✗Mistake: Saying varṇa was fixed by birth from the start

  Later rigidity is read back into early times.

  Wrong working

  From the Ṛigveda onwards everyone's occupation was fixed by birth.

  Right working

  Early Vedic texts show no fixed status by birth; occupations were flexible (Ṛigveda 9.112.3); rigidity grew later with jāti.

  ✓Do this: Always mention the early flexibility and the later change.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Confusing the Junagadh and Uttaramerur inscriptions

  Both are famous inscriptions.

  Wrong working

  The Uttaramerur inscription records the repair of Sudarshana Lake.

  Right working

  Junagadh (Gujarat): Aśhoka, Rudradaman I, Skandagupta; Sudarshana Lake. Uttaramerur (Tamil Nadu): Chola village elections by kudavolai.

  ✓Do this: Junagadh = Lake; Uttaramerur = Urn (pot) elections.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Mixing north and south names for units

  Many similar terms.

  Wrong working

  Provinces in the north were called maṇḍalams.

  Right working

  North: bhukti; south: maṇḍala/maṇḍalam.

  ✓Do this: Make a two-column table and learn it.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Listing guilds only as trade groups

  The banking role is missed.

  Wrong working

  Guilds were groups of traders who sold goods.

  Right working

  Guilds regulated quality and prices, had courts, and acted as banks, financiers and trustees.

  ✓Do this: Name at least three functions including banking.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

NCERT exercise guide: State and Society up to 1000 CE

What each exercise in the NCERT chapter tests, how to approach it, and a question of the same kind solved step by step. Questions here are written in our own words.

Practice questions on State and Society up to 1000 CE

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · MCQExam level

   Which text says 'one wheel does not move the carriage'?
   (a) Ṛigveda (b) Arthaśhāstra (c) Mahābhārata (d) Tolkappiyam

   Hint

   Kauṭilya.

   Answer

   (b) Arthaśhāstra

2. Q2 · 1 mark · Very short answerExam level

   What was a grāmika?

   Hint

   Satavāhana villages.

   Answer

   A village headman in the Satavāhana empire.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · Very short answerExam level

   Name the ruler who took the title Gangaikonda.

   Hint

   A Chola king, 11th century.

   Answer

   Rajendra I (Chola).

4. Q4 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder exam level

   Assertion (A): Jātis kept increasing in number over time.
   Reason (R): The number of varṇas was fixed at four.
   Choose (a)-(d).

   Hint

   Is R the cause of A?

   Answer

   (b) Both true, but R does not explain A: jātis grew because new social groups and occupations developed.

5. Q5 · 2 marks · Short answerExam level

   What changes in the Ganga region in the first millennium BCE does archaeology show? (2 marks)

   Hint

   Iron, grain, pottery.

   Answer

   More settlements, iron implements, a wider variety of grain (especially paddy), and new pottery: Painted Grey Ware and later the glossy Northern Black Polished Ware.

6. Q6 · 2 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   Compare the Pallava Brahmadeya villages with the Chālukya agrahārams. (2 marks)

   Hint

   Both are land grants.

   Answer

   Both were land grants. Pallava Brahmadeya villages were tax-free villages; Chālukya agrahārams were grants to Brahmin settlements, some of which (Aihole, Badami) became centres of learning.

7. Q7 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   How does Aśhoka's dhamma show the link between ethics and politics? (3 marks)

   Hint

   What did his edicts promote?

   Answer

   Aśhoka used his edicts to promote moral conduct, respect within families, ethical everyday behaviour, non-violence and compassion. A ruler using state power to spread ethical values shows that politics was expected to be guided by ethics, a link seen later too in the Uttaramerur rule of honest candidates.

8. Q8 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   Suppose you are a merchant travelling from Takṣhaśhilā to a southern port. Using the chapter, describe the route types you might use and the institutions that could help you. (3 marks)

   Hint

   Routes, ports, guilds, state protection.

   Answer

   I could travel south along the great land routes (Uttarāpatha and then Dakṣhiṇāpatha) to reach a port such as Kāveripaṭṭinam or Arikameḍu. The state protected routes and checked adulteration of goods; guilds could finance my trade or hold my money safely, and coins made payment easy.

9. Q9 · 2 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   Why do you think rulers recorded irrigation works like the Sudarshana Lake dam in inscriptions? (2 marks)

   Hint

   Revenue and legitimacy.

   Answer

   Farming was the main source of state revenue, so irrigation was a major achievement; recording it publicly showed the ruler's care for people's welfare and strengthened his authority.

10. Q10 · 5 marks · Long answerHarder exam level

    Explain the four āśhramas and how they were meant to bring balance to society. (5 marks)

    Hint

    Stage, duty, link to harmony.

    Answer

    Brahmacharya: the student stage of learning and discipline. Gṛihastha: the householder stage of family life and work. Vānaprastha: gradual withdrawal to a simpler life in the forest. Saṁnyāsa: renunciation of worldly ties. Each stage had its own dharma and rites (ṣhoḍaśha saṁskāras). By fulfilling duties suited to age, a person met social, moral and spiritual needs in turn, which in principle brought harmony and balance to society.

11. Q11 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

    Compare life in a gurukula with your school on three points. (3 marks)

    Hint

    Living, subjects, teacher relationship.

    Answer

    Living: gurukula students lived in the teacher's home as family; we go home daily. Subjects: gurukulas joined the Vedas, grammar, mathematics and medicine with arts, archery, yoga and service; schools teach many subjects but less service and yoga. Relationship: the guru-śhiṣhya bond was close and sacred; school relationships are more formal. (Accept reasoned answers.)

12. Q12 · 1 mark · Very short answerExam level

    Name the centres of learning shown with dates in the book's timeline: Nālandā, Vallabhī and Vikramśhilā. Give their dates.

    Hint

    Timeline strip.

    Answer

    Nālandā 427 CE; Vallabhī 480 CE; Vikramśhilā 783-820 CE.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.Which is the earliest literary source mentioned in the chapter?Show answer

   The Ṛigveda.

2. 2.What were the pañchajana?Show answer

   Five janas of the Ṛigveda: Yadu, Turvaśha, Puru, Anu and Druhyu.

3. 3.What does janapada literally mean?Show answer

   The place where a jana (people) first set its feet.

4. 4.How many mahājanapadas do sources usually mention?Show answer

   Sixteen.

5. 5.Who founded the Mauryan Empire and when?Show answer

   Chandragupta Maurya, in 321 BCE.

6. 6.What were the emblems of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas?Show answer

   Tiger, bow and fish respectively.

7. 7.Which new minister did the Guptas introduce?Show answer

   The sāndhivigrahika, minister of peace and war.

8. 8.What were Brahmadeya villages?Show answer

   Tax-free villages granted by the Pallavas.

9. 9.Which three powers fought the tripartite struggle for Kannauj?Show answer

   Gurjara-Pratihāras, Pālas and Rāṣhṭrakūṭas.

10. 10.Name two women sages to whom Ṛigvedic hymns are attributed.Show answer

    Any two: Apālā, Viśhvavārā, Ghoṣhā, Lopāmudrā.

11. 11.What was the basic land tax in the Mauryan period?Show answer

    Generally one-sixth of the produce.

12. 12.How many types of guilds do the Jātakas mention?Show answer

    Eighteen.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Society: regulated by customs; State: rules, laws, institutions.
• ☐Ṛigveda earliest text; oral for centuries; Sapta-Sindhu region.
• ☐Janas; rājā = clan chief; sabhā (judicial), samiti (policy), vidhata (popular).
• ☐Janapada: kin → territory (~1000-600 BCE); 16 mahājanapadas; Magadha strongest.
• ☐Iron, paddy, PGW and NBPW in the Ganga region; rājyas and gaṇas.
• ☐Satavāhanas (Deccan ~500 yrs); Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras, Satiyaputras; Sangam literature 300 BCE-300 CE.
• ☐King: protect, impartial justice; sometimes elected or expelled.
• ☐Pan-Indian ideal: Jambudvīpa, Bhāratavarṣha, Aśhvamedha, chakravarti kśhetra; Rajendra I Gangaikonda.
• ☐Saptāṅga; mantri-pariṣhad could decide in Aśhoka's absence.
• ☐Junagadh rock: Aśhoka, Rudradaman I, Skandagupta; Sudarshana Lake.
• ☐Guptas: sāndhivigrahika, kumārāmātyas; Damodarpur district office of five.
• ☐Pallavas: Brahmadeya, variyams; Chālukyas: agrahārams; Cholas: maṇḍalam-valanāḍu-nāḍu-ūr; Uttaramerur kudavolai.
• ☐Dharma = duty and righteousness; samatva; ṛita; Aśhoka's dhamma.
• ☐Varṇa functional and flexible early; jāti grew via endogamy and intermarriage; mobility evidence.
• ☐Āśhramas, puruṣhārthas, women's roles, bhakti (12 Āḻvārs, 63 Nāyanmārs).
• ☐Gurukula; Takṣhaśhilā, Nālandā, Vallabhī, Vikramśhilā.
• ☐Tax 1/6; Sudarshana Lake dam; Grand Anicut; Uttarāpatha, Dakṣhiṇāpatha; ports; 18 guilds; Nāśhik endowment.

State and Society up to 1000 CE: frequently asked questions