CBSE Class 9 · State and Society up to 1000 CE

Early Indian Polity Class 9: Janas, Mahajanapadas, Saptanga and Uttaramerur

Updated 17 October 2026 · Fact-checked

Early Indian polity moved from kin-based janas led by a rajan and checked by sabha, samiti and vidhata, to territorial janapadas, sixteen mahajanapadas (of which Magadha became the most powerful) and large empires. Kautilya described the state as seven parts (Saptanga). Empires divided territory into provinces, divisions, districts and villages, and the Uttaramerur inscription records a village assembly chosen by lot.

Notice how identity shifts from kinship to territory, and states grow bigger until Magadha's expansion leads to the Mauryan Empire.

Illustration drawn for QuestionBuddy.

Understand Early Indian Polity: Janas, Mahajanapadas, Saptanga and Administration

Society and State. *Society* is a system of relationships among people who share a territory, culture and sense of belonging, regulated mainly by customs. A *State* is an organised political system based on rules and laws, with defined rights and duties of rulers and subjects. From at least the second millennium BCE, literary sources (the Ṛigveda being the earliest) add to archaeology.

Vedic polity. Early Vedic society was organised into janas (clans bound by kinship); the Ṛigveda mentions about thirty, five of which (Yadu, Turvaśha, Puru, Anu, Druhyu) formed the pañchajana. The rājā was mainly a clan chief who led in war and protected his people. Three assemblies are mentioned:

Sabhā: smaller, select elites, mainly judicial.
Samiti: larger, represented the broader population, concerned with policy and political affairs.
Vidhata: a popular gathering that discussed warfare and politics.

Social units: kula (family), grāma (village), viśha (group of villages under a viśhapati) and jana (under the rājā).

From janapadas to empires. *Janapada* means the place where a jana "set its feet": identity shifted from kinship to territory (about 1000-600 BCE). Mahājanapadas (about 600 BCE onwards) numbered sixteen in the sources. Magadha (Bihar) became most powerful because of its strategic location, fertile plains and strong rulers; its expansion led to the Mauryan Empire (321 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya). The Ganga region of the first millennium BCE shows iron tools, more grain varieties (especially paddy) and pottery (PGW, later NBPW). Forms of state included monarchies (rājyas) and republics (gaṇas or saṁghas). In the south the Satavāhanas ruled the Deccan for about 500 years, and the Cholas, Pandyas and Keralaputras (Cheras) are mentioned in Aśhoka's inscriptions; Sangam literature describes the three crowned kings with emblems of tiger (Chola), bow (Chera) and fish (Pandya).

Duties of the king. Texts require the king to judge strong and weak impartially (Yajurveda coronation oath), to protect people from outside threats and internal disorder and to give justice. Kingship was mostly hereditary but there are references to kings being elected or expelled, so power was not always absolute. Rulers also thought of the whole subcontinent through terms such as Jambudvīpa, Bhāratavarṣha and *chakravarti kśhetra*; Chola Rajendra I took the title Gangaikonda.

Saptāṅga. Kauṭilya saw the state as seven parts: swāmi (king), amātya (ministers and officials), janapada (territory and people), durga (fortified towns), koṣha (treasury), daṇḍa (forces of defence and order) and mitra (allies). The state works only if these are well integrated. A mantri-pariṣhad of elder statesmen advised the king. The Junagadh rock records Aśhoka's edicts, Rudradaman I's repair of the Sudarshana Lake (about 150 CE) and Skandagupta's restoration (5th century CE), spanning about 700 years.

Administration of empires. Kingdoms were divided into provinces, divisions, districts and villages. Between 300 and 800 CE, terms included *bhukti* and *viṣhaya* in the north and *maṇḍalam*, *koṭṭam* and *nāḍu* in the south. The Gupta-era Damodarpur copper plates show a district office of five: head officer, chief banker, chief caravan trader, chief artisan and chief revenue officer. The Pallavas created tax-free Brahmadeya villages with village committees. The imperial Cholas used maṇḍalams, valanāḍus, nāḍus and ūrs.

Uttaramerur (10th century, Parantaka I). The *kudavolai* ("ballot pot") system: names of eligible candidates were written on palm leaves and placed in a pot, a child drew them in public, and those chosen formed committees (variyams), such as the tank committee. Candidates needed "honest earnings".

Early Indian Polity: Janas, Mahajanapadas, Saptanga and Administration: key facts

Political evolution: Jana
Janapada about 1000-600 BCE
16 Mahajanapadas about 600 BCE
Mauryan Empire 321 BCE; Kinship to territory to empire.
Three Vedic assemblies: Sabha small, elites, judicial
Samiti large, people, policy
Vidhata popular gathering, war and politics; Learn the focus of each.
Saptanga: Swami
Amatya
Janapada
Durga
Kosha
Danda
Mitra; King, ministers, territory, forts, treasury, force, allies.
Units of administration: Province
Division
District
Village; Names differ in north and south.
Uttaramerur: Parantaka I, 10th century
Kudavolai ballot pot
Names on palm leaves
Child draws
Variyams committees; Village assembly by lot.

Sabha	small, elites, judicial
Samiti	large, people, policy
Vidhata	popular gathering, war and politics

How to answer Early Indian Polity: Janas, Mahajanapadas, Saptanga and Administration questions

Questions ask you to define society and State, distinguish assemblies, order political units, explain why Magadha rose, match Saptanga limbs, and describe the Uttaramerur system.

1For assemblies, give size, who attended and the function in three short phrases.
2For political development, list the stages in order with approximate dates.
3For Magadha, give the three reasons: location, fertile plains, strong rulers.
4For Saptanga, write the Sanskrit term with its meaning for each of the seven.
5For Uttaramerur, describe the steps of the kudavolai and the qualification for candidates.

Early Indian Polity: Janas, Mahajanapadas, Saptanga and Administration in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Choosing a class committee by lot

Suppose a class puts the names of all eligible students on slips in a box, and a student from another class draws the slips in public to form a committee.

Which historical practice does this resemble and what makes it fair?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

It resembles Uttaramerur's kudavolai.
Names in a pot and a child drawing in public avoid favouritism.
Eligibility rules, such as honest earnings, applied before the draw.

Answer: It resembles the kudavolai system of Uttaramerur. Drawing names publicly by a neutral person makes the choice fair, and the eligibility rule ensures that only qualified people are in the pot.

Memory hook: Eligible names, open draw.

A state with missing parts

Suppose a small kingdom has a king, ministers and farmland, but no treasury and no army.

Using the Saptanga, say which parts are missing and what is the consequence.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Treasury (koṣha) and army (daṇḍa) are missing.
Without revenue and force, the state cannot pay officials or protect people.
The seven parts must be integrated.

Answer: The koṣha (treasury) and daṇḍa (forces) are missing. The kingdom could not fund administration or keep order or defend itself, which shows why Kauṭilya saw the state as an organic whole of seven integrated parts.

Memory hook: Seven limbs, one body.

Tricks to remember Early Indian Polity: Janas, Mahajanapadas, Saptanga and Administration

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

Sabha-Samiti-Vidhata: small, big, popular
Sabha = small and judicial; Samiti = big and policy; Vidhata = popular and war.
Use it when: Assemblies.
Saptanga: S-A-J-D-K-D-M
Swami, Amatya, Janapada, Durga, Kosha, Danda, Mitra.
Use it when: Seven parts.
Magadha: L-F-S
Location, Fertile plains, Strong rulers.
Use it when: Why Magadha rose.

Early Indian Polity: Janas, Mahajanapadas, Saptanga and Administration: solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Which limb? · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

In the Saptanga theory, "koṣha" refers to:
(a) the army
(b) the treasury
(c) allies
(d) fortified towns

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Koṣha is the treasury (1 mark).

Answer: (b) the treasury

Example 2: Janapada (2 marks) · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

What does janapada mean and what change in identity does it show? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

The place where a jana set its feet (1 mark).
Identity shifted from kinship to territory (1 mark).

Answer: Janapada literally means the place where a jana "set its feet". It shows that identity shifted from kinship to territory.

Example 3: Magadha's rise (3 marks) · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

Why did Magadha become the most powerful mahajanapada, and what empire did its expansion lead to? (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Strategic location (1 mark).
Fertile plains and strong rulers (1 mark).
It led to the Mauryan Empire, founded in 321 BCE by Chandragupta Maurya (1 mark).

Answer: Magadha, in Bihar, had a strategic location, fertile plains and strong rulers. Its expansion led to the Mauryan Empire, founded in 321 BCE by Chandragupta Maurya.

Example 4: Assertion-reason: royal power · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

Assertion (A): In early India, royal power was not always absolute.
Reason (R): There are references to kings being elected or expelled, and assemblies advised the ruler.
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Both statements follow the chapter; R explains A (1 mark).

Answer: (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

Example 5: Uttaramerur (5 marks) · 5 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

Describe the Uttaramerur system of choosing village committees and explain how it protected honesty and fairness. (5 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Inscription of Parantaka I (10th century), Kanchipuram district (1 mark).
Names of eligible candidates written on palm leaves and placed in a pot, kudavolai (1 mark).
A child drew the names publicly (1 mark).
Those chosen formed committees (variyams) such as the tank committee (1 mark).
Candidates needed honest earnings, and the public draw prevented favouritism (1 mark).

Answer: The Uttaramerur inscription of Parantaka I (10th century) describes the kudavolai or ballot-pot system. Names of eligible candidates were written on palm leaves and placed in a pot, and a child drew them in public. Those chosen formed committees (variyams), such as one for tanks. Candidates needed honest earnings, which protected honesty, and the open draw by a child prevented favouritism, which ensured fairness.

Example 6: Case: the district office · 4 marks · Case-basedHOTS / competency

Read the case and answer the questions.

A copper plate from the Gupta period records a land transaction in a district. It shows that the district office had five members: the head officer, the chief banker, the chief caravan trader, the chief artisan and the chief revenue officer.

(i) Name the plates in the chapter that show this. (1)
(ii) What does the composition of the office suggest about local administration? (1)
(iii) Why were bankers, traders and artisans consulted? (2)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

(i) Damodarpur copper plates (1 mark).
(ii) Officials worked with representatives of economic groups (1 mark).
(iii) They represented trade and crafts and helped with revenue and local conditions (2 marks).

Answer: (i) The Damodarpur copper plates of Kumaragupta I. (ii) District administration involved local economic leaders along with the officers. (iii) Bankers, caravan traders and artisans knew local trade and production, so consulting them helped in revenue collection and decisions.

Where students lose marks in Early Indian Polity: Janas, Mahajanapadas, Saptanga and Administration

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

Mistake: Mixing assemblies
Similar names.
Wrong working
The sabha was the larger popular assembly.
Right working
The sabha was smaller; the samiti was larger.
Do this: Small, big, popular.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Calling janapada a republic
Wrong category.
Wrong working
Janapadas were republics.
Right working
Janapadas were territorial states; republics were gaṇas or saṁghas.
Do this: Janapada = territory.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Leaving out Sanskrit meanings
Names only.
Wrong working
Swami, amatya, ...
Right working
Swāmi = king; amātya = ministers.
Do this: Pair each term with meaning.
Usually costs: 1-2 marks.
Mistake: Wrong century for Uttaramerur
Mixing Chola dates.
Wrong working
Uttaramerur is 5th century.
Right working
It is 10th century, Parantaka I.
Do this: Chola = 9th-11th century.
Usually costs: 1 mark.

Exam tips

Use Sanskrit terms with English meanings; examiners award both.
Quote inscriptions with place and ruler (Junagadh; Uttaramerur; Damodarpur).
Write dates as BCE or CE every time.
In evaluation answers, give a similarity and a difference, and attribute claims to the sources.

Practice questions on Early Indian Polity: Janas, Mahajanapadas, Saptanga and Administration

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
Which assembly was mainly judicial and made up of select elites?
(a) Samiti
(b) Vidhata
(c) Sabha
(d) Parishad
Hint
The smaller assembly.
Answer
(c) Sabha
Q2 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level
Name any four of the seven parts of the state (Saptanga). (2 marks)
Hint
Swami, amatya, janapada, durga.
Answer
Swāmi (king), amātya (ministers), janapada (territory and people), durga (fortified towns), koṣha (treasury), daṇḍa (forces) and mitra (allies); any four.
Q3 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Explain the three Vedic assemblies in a table-like answer. (3 marks)
Hint
Size and function.
Answer
Sabha: a smaller assembly of select elites, mainly judicial. Samiti: a larger body representing the broader population, concerned with policy and political affairs. Vidhata: a popular gathering of the community that discussed warfare and politics.
Q4 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): Janapadas marked a shift from kinship to territory.
Reason (R): Control over land, farming and trade routes became important.
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
Hint
Place where a jana set its feet.
Answer
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
Q5 · 5 marks · Long answerHarder board level
Describe the duties of an ancient Indian king and mention two limits on his power. (5 marks)
Hint
Protection, justice; elected or expelled; assemblies; ministers.
Answer
The king protected people from outside threats and internal disorder, gave justice in cases of robbery and theft, and judged the strong and weak impartially according to the Yajurveda coronation oath. He was expected to do good to the people and to follow ethical conduct. His power was limited because there are references to kings being elected or expelled, and because assemblies and a council of ministers advised him; Kauṭilya noted that one wheel cannot move a carriage, meaning the king needs cooperation.
Q6 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
Suppose a historian says, "The Uttaramerur system was just like a modern election." Evaluate the similarity and differences, giving two of each. (3 marks)
Hint
Public, eligibility; lot versus vote.
Answer
Similarities: eligibility conditions for candidates (honest earnings) and a public procedure to select representatives for committees. Differences: names were drawn by lot by a child rather than chosen by voters' preferences; and the draw was among eligible candidates for specific committees, not a party-based contest. So it was an early participatory method, but not identical to a modern election.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1.How many mahajanapadas are mentioned?Show answer
Sixteen.
2.Who founded the Mauryan Empire?Show answer
Chandragupta Maurya, in 321 BCE.
3.What is the kudavolai?Show answer
The ballot-pot system of Uttaramerur.
4.What does durga mean in Saptanga?Show answer
Fortified towns.
5.What are the three crowned kings' emblems in Sangam literature?Show answer
Tiger (Chola), bow (Chera) and fish (Pandya).

Early Indian Polity: Janas, Mahajanapadas, Saptanga and Administration: frequently asked questions

What were sabha and samiti?

Vedic assemblies: the sabha was smaller and mainly judicial, the samiti larger and concerned with policy.

What is Saptanga?

Kautilya's theory of seven parts of the state: king, ministers, territory, forts, treasury, force and allies.

Why did Magadha become powerful?

Because of its strategic location, fertile plains and strong rulers.

What does the Uttaramerur inscription show?

A village assembly system in which committee members were chosen by lot from eligible candidates.