Writs, PIL, Jurisdictions and Alternative Dispute Resolution: Class 8 Notes and Questions
Updated 17 October 2026 · Fact-checked
A citizen can file a writ petition in the Supreme Court (Article 32) or a High Court (Article 226) to enforce Fundamental Rights. Public Interest Litigation (PIL) lets the court take up matters of public concern. The Supreme Court has original, appellate and advisory jurisdiction and hears special leave petitions. Arbitration, mediation, Lok Adalats and Gram Nyayalayas resolve disputes outside formal trials and ease the load on courts.
Notice that Article 32 and 226 lead to the two Constitutional Courts, PIL uses both, and ADR settles disputes outside formal trials.
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Understand Writs, PIL, Jurisdictions and Alternative Dispute Resolution
Writ jurisdiction. The Constitutional Courts, that is the Supreme Court and High Courts, have writ jurisdiction to enforce the Fundamental Rights in Part III (equality, liberty, right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of religion and so on). A citizen can file a writ petition directly before the Supreme Court under Article 32 where the issue has an all-India ramification, or before the High Court under Article 226 for violation of Fundamental Rights within the state.
Public Interest Litigation (PIL). An innovation by the Supreme Court to address issues of public concern and give meaning to the Right to Life under Article 21. It is filed under Articles 32 and 226. NCERT's first reported PIL: advocate Kapila Hingorani read in a newspaper of under-trial prisoners in Bihar held in jail for longer than the punishment they could have received if found guilty. The Supreme Court ordered their release and issued guidelines leading to the release of almost 40,000 under-trial prisoners across India. Other PILs: *M.C. Mehta v. Union of India* (cleaning of the Ganga, protection of the Taj Mahal) and *Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan* (1997 guidelines against sexual harassment at the workplace, followed by the 2013 Act).
Jurisdictions of the Supreme Court.
- Original (Article 131): exclusive jurisdiction in disputes between the Centre and a State; the Centre and a State on one side and another State on the other; and inter-state disputes such as river water disputes.
- Appellate (Articles 132, 133, 134, 134A): appeals from High Court orders if the High Court certifies a question of constitutional interpretation or a substantial question of law; criminal cases involving death sentence; appeals from specialised tribunals such as the National Green Tribunal and NCLAT.
- Advisory (Article 143): if the President seeks the opinion on a question of law or fact of public importance, a Constitution Bench of not fewer than five judges answers.
- Special Leave Petition (Article 136): extraordinary discretionary power to allow appeal from any court or tribunal on a question of law of general public importance or to do substantive justice.
- Law declared by the Supreme Court binds all courts (Article 141); it may pass any order necessary for complete justice (Article 142); all authorities act in aid of the Supreme Court (Article 144).
Alternative dispute resolution (ADR). Courts encourage settlement through methods that reduce the burden on the judiciary.
- Arbitration: parties agree to refer the dispute to an independent adjudicator or panel (a retired judge, lawyer or expert). The arbitrator must act fairly and impartially and let each party present its case. The decision is final, legally binding and enforceable by courts. Governed by the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996.
- Mediation: the most common form; a neutral mediator helps the parties arrive at a mutual settlement and has no power to impose a decision. Governed by the Mediation Act, 2023.
- Lok Adalats: special fora, 'people's courts', where disputes pending in courts, and sometimes even before reaching court, are settled amicably; rooted in access to justice, recognised by the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987; aim to reduce backlog.
- Gram Nyayalayas: established under the Gram Nyayalayas Act, 2008, as mobile village-level courts to decentralise the system, using simplified procedure with no technicalities.
- Negotiation and conciliation are also mentioned.
Digital technology. Litigants can check case details, access orders and judgments free and in many languages; initiatives include e-filing, hybrid hearings, live streaming, translations and the National Judicial Data Grid; since 2024-25 a Virtual Justice Clock display stands at the Supreme Court's entrance gates.
Citizens' role. NCERT notes citizens can help by bringing social concerns that affect the rights of people, animals and nature to the notice of the judiciary.
Writs, PIL, Jurisdictions and Alternative Dispute Resolution: key facts
- Writ petitions
Supreme Court Article 32 High Court Article 226 purpose enforce Fundamental Rights - Part III of the Constitution.
- Supreme Court jurisdictions
Original Article 131 Appellate Articles 132-134A Advisory Article 143 Special Leave Article 136 - With one example each.
- ADR methods
Arbitration binding decision Mediation mediator helps, no decision Lok Adalat settlement Gram Nyayalaya village courts - Know the Act of each.
- PIL facts
- Article 21
- Kapila Hingorani
- under-trial prisoners in Bihar
- almost 40,000 released
- First reported PIL.
- Acts governing ADR
- Arbitration and Conciliation Act 1996
- Legal Services Authorities Act 1987
- Gram Nyayalayas Act 2008
- Mediation Act 2023
- Year with each.
How to answer Writs, PIL, Jurisdictions and Alternative Dispute Resolution questions
Questions ask for the meaning and purpose of PIL, difference between writ and appellate powers, steps of ADR and the benefits of Lok Adalats, or for a case study on dispute resolution.
- 1For PIL, define, state the Article, give the first case and its result.
- 2For jurisdictions, list the type, the Article and an example.
- 3For ADR, name the method, who decides, whether the decision is binding and which Act applies.
- 4For application questions, suggest the most suitable forum and justify.
- 5State benefits: lower cost, speed, reduced backlog, peaceful settlement.
Writs, PIL, Jurisdictions and Alternative Dispute Resolution in real life
The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.
Choosing the right forum
Suppose two shopkeepers in a village disagree over a small debt of a few thousand rupees. Neither wants a long court case.
Suggest two suitable alternatives to a regular trial and say why.
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- Mediation helps them reach a settlement they both accept.
- A Lok Adalat settles disputes amicably, without formal rigours.
- A Gram Nyayalaya offers simplified village-level procedure.
Answer: They could use mediation, where a neutral person helps them reach a settlement without imposing a decision, or a Lok Adalat, a people's court that settles disputes amicably and quickly without the rigours of a formal trial. A Gram Nyayalaya is another village-level option with simplified procedure.
Memory hook: Settle, don't just sue.
Tricks to remember Writs, PIL, Jurisdictions and Alternative Dispute Resolution
Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.
32 SC, 226 HC
Article 32 goes to the Supreme Court; Article 226 to the High Court.
Use it when: Writ petitions.
Mediator suggests, arbitrator decides
Mediation: helps; arbitration: decides and binds.
Use it when: Key difference.
OAA-S
Original, Appellate, Advisory, Special leave.
Use it when: Supreme Court jurisdictions.
Writs, PIL, Jurisdictions and Alternative Dispute Resolution: solved examples
Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.
Example 1: Where to file a writ? · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
A citizen whose Fundamental Right is violated within a state may directly approach the High Court under:
(a) Article 32
(b) Article 131
(c) Article 143
(d) Article 226
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- Article 226 gives the High Court writ jurisdiction within the state (1 mark).
Answer: (d) Article 226
Example 2: PIL (3 marks) · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
What is Public Interest Litigation? Describe the first reported PIL and its outcome. (3 marks)
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- PIL is an innovation of the Supreme Court to address issues of public concern and give meaning to the Right to Life under Article 21 (1 mark).
- The first reported PIL: Kapila Hingorani filed a writ petition for under-trial prisoners in Bihar held longer than their possible punishment (1 mark).
- The Supreme Court ordered their release and issued guidelines leading to the release of almost 40,000 under-trial prisoners (1 mark).
Answer: Public Interest Litigation is an innovation of the Supreme Court to address issues of public concern and give meaning to the Right to Life under Article 21. In the first reported PIL, the lawyer Kapila Hingorani, after reading a newspaper report about under-trial prisoners in Bihar who had spent longer in jail than the punishment they would have faced if found guilty, filed a writ petition. The Supreme Court ordered their release and issued guidelines under which almost 40,000 under-trial prisoners across India were released.
Example 3: Assertion-reason: arbitration · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): The decision of an arbitrator is final and enforceable by a court of law.
Reason (R): The parties agree to refer their dispute to an independent adjudicator and the decision is legally binding on them.
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- Agreement to refer and binding nature of the award explain why courts enforce it (1 mark).
Answer: (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
Example 4: Compare the ADR methods (5 marks) · 5 marks · Long answerHarder board level
Compare arbitration, mediation and Lok Adalats on who helps or decides, whether the outcome is binding, and the legal basis. (5 marks)
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- Arbitration: independent arbitrator or panel decides; decision final and binding; Arbitration and Conciliation Act 1996 (2 marks).
- Mediation: neutral mediator assists a mutual settlement but cannot decide or impose a view; Mediation Act 2023 (1 mark).
- Lok Adalats: people's courts settling disputes amicably, including cases pending in court; Legal Services Authorities Act 1987 (1 mark).
- All reduce the burden on courts and avoid formal adjudication (1 mark).
Answer: In arbitration, the parties agree to refer the dispute to an independent arbitrator or panel, who must act fairly and impartially; the decision is final, legally binding and enforceable by a court, and the process is governed by the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996. In mediation, a neutral mediator assists the parties to reach a mutual settlement but has no power to make a decision or impose a view; it is governed by the Mediation Act, 2023. Lok Adalats are special fora, called people's courts, where pending cases (and sometimes even disputes before they reach court) are settled amicably; they have statutory recognition under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987. All three reduce the burden on the courts and offer a settlement without the rigours of formal adjudication.
Example 5: Case: a polluted river · 4 marks · Case-basedHOTS / competency
Read the case and answer.
NCERT describes a village by a river whose water turned brownish and foul-smelling, making many people sick; villagers believe effluents from an upstream factory are the cause. NCERT also names M.C. Mehta v. Union of India, in which the Supreme Court took up environmental issues such as the cleaning of the Ganga.
(i) Under which Article could the villagers approach the High Court if a Fundamental Right is violated? (1)
(ii) Which Fundamental Right is most relevant here? (1)
(iii) Suggest two steps the villagers can take. (2)
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- (i) Article 226 (1 mark).
- (ii) The Right to Life (Article 21), including a healthy environment as taken up in environmental PILs (1 mark).
- (iii) Any two: file a writ petition or PIL; approach the National Green Tribunal for environmental issues; bring the matter to the attention of the authorities and the judiciary; use Lok Adalat or mediation if settlement is possible (2 marks).
Answer: (i) Article 226. (ii) The Right to Life under Article 21, since polluted water harms health, and the Supreme Court has taken up environmental issues in PILs. (iii) The villagers could file a writ petition or a PIL in the High Court, and approach the National Green Tribunal, which decides environmental issues; they could also bring the matter to the notice of the authorities and the courts.
Where students lose marks in Writs, PIL, Jurisdictions and Alternative Dispute Resolution
The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.
Mistake: Saying a mediator decides the dispute
Confusing with arbitration.
Wrong working
The mediator gives a binding decision.
Right working
A mediator only assists; the settlement is mutual.
Do this: Mediator helps; arbitrator decides.
Usually costs: 1-2 marks.
Mistake: Mixing Articles 32 and 226
Both give writ power.
Wrong working
Article 226 gives the right to approach the Supreme Court.
Right working
Article 32: Supreme Court; Article 226: High Court.
Do this: 32 = SC (the shorter number, the higher court).
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Describing PIL as 'a case between two private persons'
Ordinary suit idea.
Wrong working
PIL is filed only by the affected person for personal gain.
Right working
PIL addresses issues of public concern and can be taken up on a complaint made in public interest.
Do this: Use the Hingorani example.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Exam tips
- Learn a mini table: Article, court, purpose for 32, 131, 136, 143, 226.
- State the year of each Act with ADR methods.
- Use the PIL cases by name to support answers: Hingorani, M.C. Mehta, Vishaka.
- Mention that the Supreme Court's law binds all courts under Article 141 when asked about its role.
Practice questions on Writs, PIL, Jurisdictions and Alternative Dispute Resolution
Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.
Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
Lok Adalats derive statutory recognition from the:
(a) Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996
(b) Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987
(c) Mediation Act, 2023
(d) Gram Nyayalayas Act, 2008Hint
Access to justice.
Answer
(b) Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987
Q2 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level
What is advisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court? (2 marks)
Hint
Article 143.
Answer
If the President seeks the Supreme Court's opinion on a question of law or fact of public importance, the Court can give its opinion; such a case is heard by a Constitution Bench of not less than five judges (Article 143).
Q3 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Explain the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court with two examples of disputes. (3 marks)
Hint
Article 131.
Answer
Under Article 131 the Supreme Court has exclusive original jurisdiction over certain disputes, which means they come directly to it. These include disputes between the Centre and a State, disputes where the Centre and a State are on one side and another State on the other, and inter-state disputes such as river water disputes.
Q4 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): Gram Nyayalayas are called mobile village-level courts.
Reason (R): They were set up to decentralise the judicial system, with simplified procedure and no technicalities.
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.Hint
Is R the reason for their name?
Answer
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A. R explains their purpose; their mobile, village-level nature is a separate feature.
Q5 · 5 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency
Courts have a heavy burden of cases. Using the chapter, explain four measures, legal or technological, that make justice quicker and more accessible, and say which of them you think is most helpful to a villager. (5 marks)
Hint
ADR, Lok Adalats, Gram Nyayalayas, digital initiatives; choose and justify.
Answer
Alternative methods such as arbitration, mediation and negotiation let parties settle disputes outside formal trial, easing the courts' burden. Lok Adalats, the people's courts, settle pending and even pre-court disputes amicably. Gram Nyayalayas decentralise the system as mobile village-level courts with simplified procedure. Digital initiatives such as e-filing, hybrid hearings, live streaming, translation of judgments into Indian languages and the National Judicial Data Grid make the system more accessible and transparent. For a villager, Gram Nyayalayas and Lok Adalats are probably the most helpful, because they reach people locally, avoid technicalities and cost less time and effort than a regular court, though translation of judgments also helps those who do not read English.
Test your recall
Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.
1.Which Article lets you file a writ in the Supreme Court?Show answer
Article 32.
2.What is the minimum size of a Constitution Bench for advisory cases?Show answer
Five judges.
3.Which Act governs mediation in India?Show answer
The Mediation Act, 2023.
4.Which guidelines did the Supreme Court issue in 1997?Show answer
Guidelines against sexual harassment at the workplace in Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan.
5.Which Act set up Gram Nyayalayas?Show answer
The Gram Nyayalayas Act, 2008.
Writs, PIL, Jurisdictions and Alternative Dispute Resolution: frequently asked questions
What is a PIL?
Public Interest Litigation, a Supreme Court innovation allowing issues of public concern to be taken to court under Articles 32 and 226, giving meaning to the Right to Life.
What is the difference between arbitration and mediation?
An arbitrator decides and the decision binds the parties; a mediator only helps the parties reach a settlement and cannot impose a decision.
What are Lok Adalats?
People's courts that settle disputes amicably, including cases pending in courts, to reduce backlog and ensure access to justice.