CBSE Class 8 · Cultural Currents: 13th to 17th Centuries

Women, Education, Language, Science and Everyday Life: Class 8 Notes and Questions

Updated 17 October 2026 · Draft, not yet fact-checked

Between the 13th and 17th centuries women's public roles varied by region: purdah spread in parts of the north while women in the south kept public roles. Education continued in decentralised institutions despite the loss of Nalanda and Vikramashila. Regional languages, Persian and Urdu grew; the Kerala School of Mathematics made pioneering advances; and food, clothing and crafts show cultural exchange.

Notice that purdah spread in parts of north India, while women in the south kept public roles and gave gifts to temples.

Illustration drawn for QuestionBuddy.

Understand Women, Education, Language, Science and Everyday Life

Women in society. An Arab chronicler of the 10th century noted that Indian princes allowed women to be seen at court without a veil. NCERT says that after invasions and military campaigns from the 12th century onwards, women's public appearance declined in parts of north India, purdah and the veil (ghunghat) became more common, partly as a means of protection and partly as a symbol of nobility among the ruling class. The practice was largely confined to north India. Women in royal Muslim households were generally secluded, though some took part in political and educational life.

Razia Sultan (first half of the 13th century): the first and only woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate; led military campaigns, set up educational institutions, favoured a merit-based administration and appeared unveiled at court; opposition from nobles ended her brief reign.
Nur Jahan (early 17th century, wife of Jahangir): issued royal orders, attended court meetings and had coins minted in her name; supported art, architecture and trade.
South India: the situation for women changed little; elite women took part in administration, issued grants and influenced decisions (Hampi engravings; a Portuguese chronicler describes women wrestlers, accountants, scribes and musicians in the Vijayanagara king's staff). Queens and wealthy women donated villages to temples and built community halls and wells. NCERT concludes that economic prosperity could not have reached its heights without women's participation.

Education and knowledge. Despite disruption, learning continued in gurukulas, mathas, temple schools, Buddhist viharas and Jain pallis (Sanskrit and Prakrit grammar, astronomy, law, medicine, sacred texts), village pathshalas, and madrasas teaching Arabic, Persian, Hindavi and Islamic studies. Kanchipuram and Sringeri were renowned for philosophy and mathematics. Vijayanagara rulers followed *purvamaryade* (established practice) and supported temples and mathas. The destruction of Nalanda and Vikramashila in the late 12th century was a great loss and scattered scholars. In 1623 the traveller Pietro Della Valle noted schools teaching reading, writing and arithmetic in coastal Karnataka. Crafts continued through jati and shreni systems and apprenticeships. Banaras brocade: weavers from Gujarat moved to Banaras with Akbar's encouragement; the Mughals introduced zari and brocades; Banarasi saris carry a Geographical Indication (GI) tag. Pashmina shawls show Persian buta motifs.

Language and literature. Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Odia, Hindavi, Bengali and Marathi flourished. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu influenced Bengali literature; Kavindra Paramesvara translated the Mahabharata into Bengali. Krishnadevaraya and the Gajapati kings of Odisha patronised poets; Tirumalamba, a poet at Achyutadevaraya's court, wrote *Varadambika Parinaya* in Sanskrit. Persian became the language of administration and court culture; Sanskrit works were translated into Persian and back (three Persian translations of Bhaskaracharya's *Lilavati*, the first by Faizi; Kalhana's *Rajatarangini*). Dara Shikoh is credited with translating 52 Upanishads into Persian with scholars of Varanasi, which later influenced European thinkers. Urdu developed in the Ganga-Yamuna plains from Hindavi with Arabic and Persian words; south of the Deccan it became Dakhini. Amir Khusrau is called the father of Urdu literature.

Science and technology. A culture of enquiry. Pure zinc production peaked, using a distillation process first used in the world; Narayana Pandita wrote *Ganita Kaumudi* in the 14th century. Madhava of the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics gave pioneering contributions to calculus, including series for trigonometric functions and an infinite series for pi, as world firsts. In 1500 Nilakantha Somayaji worked out a planetary model in which Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun, decades before Copernicus (1543). Indian saltpetre was used for gunpowder and to cool water; itr (perfume), such as the rose-based itr associated with Jahangir's court, was also produced. Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani were widely practised.

Regional architecture. Konark's Surya temple (13th century), Ranakpur Jain temple (15th century), the Sheesh Mahal at Amer. Under Krishnadevaraya Hampi saw a golden age of temple building. The Sri Ranganathaswamy temple at Srirangam was damaged in the early 14th century and rebuilt by the end of that century, showing resilience.

Everyday exchange. Food: spices entered imperial kitchens; marinating in curd and ghee became popular; naan from Persia; samosa from the Persian sambuseh and jalebi from zalabiyeh. Clothing: the jama and pyjama in court, muslin dupattas, the angrakha adapted from Persian court fashion, while the sari continued.

Women, Education, Language, Science and Everyday Life: key facts

Women rulers and influencers: Razia Sultan 13th century
Nur Jahan early 17th century
Tirumalamba poet at Vijayanagara; One fact each.
Kerala School: Madhava: series for trigonometric functions, infinite series for pi | Nilakantha Somayaji 1500: planetary model before Copernicus 1543; World firsts as per NCERT.
Translations: Dara Shikoh: 52 Upanishads into Persian
Faizi: Lilavati into Persian
Rajatarangini into Persian
Mahabharata into Bengali by Kavindra Paramesvara; Exchange of knowledge.
Lost and surviving institutions: Lost: Nalanda, Vikramashila (late 12th century) | Surviving: gurukulas, mathas, temple schools, pathshalas, madrasas; Decentralised systems.
Exchange in daily life: Samosa from sambuseh
Jalebi from zalabiyeh
Naan
Jama and pyjama
Angrakha; Food and clothing.

How to answer Women, Education, Language, Science and Everyday Life questions

Questions ask for regional differences in women's status, reasons for education surviving, examples of cultural and scientific exchange, and the contribution of named people.

1For women, distinguish north and south and give two named examples.
2For education, list institutions that survived and the loss of Nalanda and Vikramashila.
3For exchange, give a concrete case (Upanishads in Persian, Lilavati, jalebi).
4For science, give the person, work and what was a 'world first' as per NCERT.
5Use neutral language when describing seclusion and conflict; attribute explanations to scholars as NCERT does.

Women, Education, Language, Science and Everyday Life in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Why decentralised education survives

Suppose a big central library is destroyed by a flood, but each neighbourhood also has a small reading room kept by local families.

Relate this to the survival of learning after the fall of Nalanda.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Local reading rooms still work after the big library is lost.
Knowledge is spread across many small centres.

Answer: Just as the neighbourhood reading rooms keep learning going, gurukulas, mathas, temple schools, pathshalas and apprenticeships continued teaching after the destruction of Nalanda and Vikramashila. These small, local, decentralised systems were not easily wiped out together.

Memory hook: Many small lamps are harder to put out than one big one.

Tricks to remember Women, Education, Language, Science and Everyday Life

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

R-N-T
Razia (13th c.), Nur Jahan (17th c.), Tirumalamba (poet).
Use it when: Women named in the chapter.
Madhava before Copernicus
Nilakantha 1500; Copernicus 1543.
Use it when: Planetary model with Mercury and Venus going round the Sun, before Copernicus's heliocentric model (1543).
Dara's 52
52 Upanishads into Persian.
Use it when: Dara Shikoh's work.

Women, Education, Language, Science and Everyday Life: solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Coins in a woman's name · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

Coins were minted in the name of which woman of the Mughal court in the early 17th century?
(a) Razia Sultan
(b) Bega Begum
(c) Nur Jahan
(d) Tirumalamba

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

NCERT: Nur Jahan, wife of Jahangir, issued orders and had coins minted in her name (1 mark).

Answer: (c) Nur Jahan

Example 2: Women in north and south (3 marks) · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

How did the status and public role of women differ between north and south India in this period? Give one example from each. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

In parts of north India public appearance declined and purdah and veils spread (1 mark).
Example: Razia Sultan and Nur Jahan acted publicly despite this, or royal women were secluded (1 mark).
In the south the situation changed little; elite women administered, issued grants and appear in Hampi engravings (1 mark).

Answer: In parts of north India, after the invasions and campaigns from the 12th century, women's public appearance and engagement declined and practices such as purdah and the veil became more widespread, although a few women such as Razia Sultan and Nur Jahan played public roles. In south India, the situation for women changed little: elite women continued to play roles in administration, issued grants and influenced political decisions, and engravings at Hampi show women in many public activities.

Example 3: Assertion-reason: Kerala School · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

Assertion (A): Nilakantha Somayaji's planetary model was formulated before Copernicus's heliocentric model.
Reason (R): Nilakantha's model, devised in 1500, had Mercury and Venus going round the Sun, while Copernicus's work is dated 1543.
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

The dates 1500 and 1543 support A; R states them (1 mark).

Answer: (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

Example 4: Language and translation (5 marks) · 5 marks · Long answerHarder board level

Explain how languages and translations enriched Indian culture in the 13th to 17th centuries, with four examples. (5 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Regional languages flourished; Chaitanya's influence on Bengali; Mahabharata into Bengali (1 mark).
Persian as language of administration; Sanskrit texts translated into Persian (1 mark).
Lilavati translated three times; Rajatarangini translated (1 mark).
Dara Shikoh translated 52 Upanishads into Persian; later reached Europe (1 mark).
Urdu developed from Hindavi with Arabic and Persian words; Dakhini; Amir Khusrau (1 mark).

Answer: Indian languages such as Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Odia, Hindavi, Bengali and Marathi flourished; bhakti literature spread ideas through accessible poetry, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu influenced Bengali literature and Kavindra Paramesvara translated the Mahabharata into Bengali. Persian became the language of administration and court culture, and Sanskrit works were translated into Persian: Bhaskaracharya's Lilavati was translated three times, the first by Faizi, and Kalhana's Rajatarangini was also translated. Dara Shikoh is credited with translating 52 Upanishads into Persian with scholars of Varanasi, which later influenced European thinkers. Urdu developed in the Ganga-Yamuna plains from Hindavi with Arabic and Persian words, becoming Dakhini in the Deccan, and Amir Khusrau is regarded as the father of Urdu literature.

Example 5: Case: Banaras weavers · 4 marks · Case-basedHOTS / competency

Read the case and answer.

Weavers from Gujarat moved to Banaras with Akbar's encouragement and brought their expertise. The Mughals introduced zari or zardozi and brocades, which became part of the signature style of Banaras silk saris, together with designs inspired by nature and geometric patterns. Skills passed on through apprenticeship in the family or with a master in the guild. Banarasi saris carry a Geographical Indication (GI) tag. Because chemical dyes pollute the Ganga, efforts are being made to replace them with vegetable dyes.

(i) What did the Mughals introduce to Banaras weaving? (1)
(ii) How were skills transmitted? (1)
(iii) What is the benefit of a GI tag, and what environmental issue is linked to weaving? (2)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

(i) Zari or zardozi and brocades (1 mark).
(ii) Apprenticeships within the family or with a master in the guild (1 mark).
(iii) GI tag gives weavers rights over their knowledge and restricts who can use the name 'Banarasi'; chemical dyes pollute the Ganga (2 marks).

Answer: (i) Zari or zardozi and brocades. (ii) Through apprenticeships, either within the family or with a master in the guild. (iii) The GI tag gives weavers of the area rights over the knowledge they hold and restricts who can call their saris Banarasi; the use of chemical dyes pollutes the Ganga, so vegetable dyes are being promoted.

Where students lose marks in Women, Education, Language, Science and Everyday Life

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

Mistake: Generalising purdah to all of India
Overgeneralising.
Wrong working
Women across India observed purdah.
Right working
NCERT: the veiling system was largely confined to north India.
Do this: Always say 'largely in north India'.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Dating Madhava's work to the Mughal period
Not recalling dates.
Wrong working
The Kerala School flourished under Akbar.
Right working
Madhava worked about the 14th century; the School continued until the 19th century.
Do this: Link Nilakantha to 1500, before Copernicus (1543).
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Writing that all learning centres were destroyed
Over-reading the loss of Nalanda.
Wrong working
Education ended after Nalanda fell.
Right working
Education continued through decentralised systems.
Do this: Name three surviving institutions.
Usually costs: 1 mark.

Exam tips

For women's roles, always contrast north and south and give one named woman for each point.
For science, say 'according to NCERT, a world first' when stating priority claims.
Use neutral language for conflicts and focus on what continued and what was exchanged.
Keep dates at hand: 13th century (Razia), 1500 (Nilakantha), 1543 (Copernicus), 1623 (Della Valle).

Practice questions on Women, Education, Language, Science and Everyday Life

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
Who translated 52 Upanishads from Sanskrit into Persian?
(a) Faizi
(b) Dara Shikoh
(c) Amir Khusrau
(d) Kalhana
Hint
A Mughal prince.
Answer
(b) Dara Shikoh
Q2 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level
Name two institutions that survived as centres of learning after the destruction of Nalanda and Vikramashila. (2 marks)
Hint
Local and decentralised.
Answer
Education continued in gurukulas, mathas, temple schools, village pathshalas, Buddhist viharas and Jain pallis and, under Muslim rule, in madrasas; centres like Kanchipuram and Sringeri were renowned for philosophy and mathematics.
Q3 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Describe the contributions of Madhava and Nilakantha Somayaji to mathematics and astronomy. (3 marks)
Hint
Series; planetary model.
Answer
Madhava made pioneering contributions to calculus, including the series expansion of trigonometric functions and an exact value of pi as an infinite series, both world firsts. He and his followers are known as the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics. In 1500 Nilakantha Somayaji, a scholar of the School, worked out a planetary model in which Mercury and Venus go round the Sun, decades before Copernicus's heliocentric model (1543).
Q4 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): The samosa and jalebi show cultural exchange in food.
Reason (R): They are Indian adaptations of the Persian sambuseh and zalabiyeh.
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
Hint
Origin of the dishes.
Answer
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
Q5 · 5 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency
Using the chapter, argue that Indian culture 'adopted and adapted' influences while retaining its core, with examples from food, clothing, language and science. (5 marks)
Hint
Samosa and jalebi; jama and angrakha; Urdu; translations; Kerala School independent work.
Answer
In food, the Persian sambuseh became the samosa with potato and peas and the zalabiyeh became the jalebi with circular coils and a plain sugar syrup, while spices and ghee entered imperial kitchens. In clothing, the jama and pyjama and the angrakha, adapted from Persian court fashion to Indian fabrics, were adopted, but the sari with its regional variations continued. In language, Urdu grew from Hindavi with Arabic and Persian words and regional languages took in Persian loan words, while Sanskrit and regional literature continued. In knowledge, texts were translated between Sanskrit and Persian, while Indian scholars such as Madhava and Nilakantha made original discoveries. Thus new influences were fitted to local tastes while traditions continued.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1.Who wrote Varadambika Parinaya?Show answer
Tirumalamba, a poet at Achyutadevaraya's court.
2.Who is known as the father of Urdu literature?Show answer
Amir Khusrau.
3.Which dish is the Indian adaptation of the Persian sambuseh?Show answer
The samosa.
4.What is purvamaryade?Show answer
A Kannada word for following previously established practices of dharma and social norms, as in Vijayanagara.
5.What does a GI tag give to Banaras weavers?Show answer
Rights over the knowledge they hold and a restriction on who can call their saris 'Banarasi'.

Women, Education, Language, Science and Everyday Life: frequently asked questions

Did women have the same status all over India in this period?

No. In parts of north India public life declined for many women and purdah spread, while in south India the situation changed little, with elite women active in administration and temple patronage.

What is the Kerala School of Mathematics?

A school of astronomers and mathematicians led by Madhava, known for series expansions leading to calculus and an infinite series for pi, which produced works until the 19th century.

How did Urdu develop?

In the Ganga-Yamuna plains from Hindavi with words from Arabic and Persian; in the south it became Dakhini.