CBSE Class 8 · Cultural Currents: 13th to 17th Centuries

Bhakti, Sufism, Music, Painting and Gardens: Class 8 Cultural Currents, 13th to 17th Centuries

Updated 17 October 2026 · Fact-checked

Between the 13th and 17th centuries Indian culture endured through political instability and kept growing richer. The bhakti saints (Kabir, Ravidas, Guru Nanak, Mirabai, Chaitanya, Tukaram, Purandaradasa) and Sufis preached devotion, equality and the oneness of God. Music split into Hindustani and Carnatic streams, miniature painting blended Rajput and Mughal styles, and Mughal charbagh gardens spread.

Notice that one shared culture kept growing in four streams: devotion, two music traditions, blended painting styles and charbagh gardens.

Illustration drawn for QuestionBuddy.

Understand Bhakti, Sufism, Music, Painting and Gardens

Culture and continuity. Culture is the shared way of life of a group, passed down generations: values, customs, art, music, literature, philosophy and science. NCERT says India's culture has been resilient because of deep roots, timeless values, scientific temper and rich philosophical and artistic traditions, and has always adopted or adapted the best of external currents. From the early 13th century, NCERT says, new rulers brought different political ideas, administrative systems, artistic styles and religious beliefs. Three common patterns: continued traditional practices, patronage from rulers of various backgrounds, and participation by all sections of society.

Bhakti. The bhakti marga (path of devotion) was one of several paths to moksha and needed no priests or rituals; it had crystallised by the 6th century. Its renewed popularity in this period reflected cultural continuity and a search for spiritual strength amid upheaval. Verses and songs were composed in local languages expressing love, compassion and equality.

Kabir (15th century, present Uttar Pradesh, raised by a weaver couple): spoke of one god and criticised the rituals of both Hinduism and Islam. His couplet 'Kaba phir Kasi bhaya, Ram bhaya re Rahim' says all differences dissolve in realising the divine, as wheat grains become flour.
Ravidas (early 16th century, a family of leather-workers): promoted equality and oneness, breaking the rigid walls of varna and jati.
Guru Nanak: journeyed widely preaching one God and equality of all; his teachings and hymns of several Hindu saints are preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib.
Others: Mirabai (Rajasthan), Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (east), Tukaram, Dnyaneshwar and Namdev (west), Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa (south). Purandaradasa, called the father of Carnatic music, may have composed 4,75,000 kirtanas and was linked with Krishnadevaraya's court.
In Tamil Nadu the hymns of the Alvars (Divya Prabandham) and Nayanars (Tiruvachakam), composed between the 6th and 9th centuries, continued to be recited.

People of all sections joined bhajan gatherings with music and dance; NCERT says patronage by rulers helped but participation of the people made them thrive.

Sufism. A path in Islam focused on devotion and an inner, personal search for God. Sufis sang qawwalis, fusing local classical styles with their own; Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti and Nizamuddin Auliya encouraged music as a way to God. They adopted yogic and Vedantic techniques such as meditation, silence, asceticism and zikr. Dara Shikoh saw Vedanta and Sufism as converging and had Upanishads translated into Persian. The bhakti and Sufi traditions often overlapped. Amir Khusrau (mid-13th to early 14th century) is credited with developing the qawwali and is known as the father of Urdu literature.

Music and storytelling. The Natyashastra formalised music, dance and drama. Storytelling forms: puppetry in Rajasthan, *paachitra* (cloth picture) in Odisha, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh, using epic scenes with song. Indian classical music developed in two related streams: Hindustani (north) and Carnatic (south). In the late 15th century Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior's patronage raised dhrupad to new heights. Tansen (Ramtanu Pandey) joined Akbar's court as one of the nine ratnas and composed also in praise of Krishna and Shiva. Carnatic music developed largely unaffected by Persian and Arabic influences. Modern forms of the sitar and tabla evolved in these centuries (the tabla from the older pakhawaj).

Miniature paintings. After paper reached India in the 10th or 11th century, painting moved from walls to paper. Rajput painting (15th to late 19th century): traditional Hindu themes, lotus, banyan trees, elephants, peacocks, women with large eyes. Mughal miniatures: Persian influence, secular themes (court scenes, portraits, landscapes), peak in Akbar's atelier where one artist drew lines, another added colours and a third the finishing touches; manuscripts such as the Persian Mahabharata (Razmnama). There was exchange between styles; some Mughal court painters migrated to Bikaner, blending styles.

Gardens. Gardens (udyana, vatika, nandana) are described in ancient texts, often around temples. The Mughals brought the Persian charbagh plan: four parts with waterways, channels, fountains and terraces, representing the rivers of Paradise. Examples: Nishat Bagh, Srinagar (early 17th century), Amer Fort gardens in Jaipur, and the Mughal Gardens at Rashtrapati Bhavan.

Bhakti, Sufism, Music, Painting and Gardens: key facts

Bhakti saints and regions: Kabir Uttar Pradesh
Ravidas north
Guru Nanak Punjab
Mirabai Rajasthan
Chaitanya east
Tukaram, Namdev, Dnyaneshwar west
Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa south; Learn by region.
Messages of bhakti: One God
Equality
Devotion in local languages
No rigid rituals or barriers of varna and jati; Unifying force.
Two music streams: Hindustani: north, dhrupad, Tansen | Carnatic: south, Purandaradasa; Related but distinct.
Miniature painting: Rajput: Hindu themes
Mughal: Persian influence, court scenes
peak in Akbar's atelier
exchange of styles; Moved from walls to paper.
Charbagh garden: Persian design
four parts
water channels, fountains, terraces
around forts, tombs, mosques; Nishat Bagh, Amer Fort.

Kabir	Uttar Pradesh
Ravidas	north
Guru Nanak	Punjab
Mirabai	Rajasthan
Chaitanya	east
Tukaram, Namdev, Dnyaneshwar	west
Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa	south

How to answer Bhakti, Sufism, Music, Painting and Gardens questions

Questions ask for the role of bhakti and Sufi saints, names with regions and messages, the development of music and painting, and the idea of cultural exchange.

1For saints, name the saint, region or period and one message.
2For bhakti and Sufism, note both the similarities (devotion, music, oneness) and the differences of origin.
3For exchange, give a concrete example (qawwali, Tansen, Mughal-Rajput paintings, charbagh gardens).
4Use a neutral tone about conflict: say that culture endured and adapted, as NCERT does.
5End with continuity and change.

Bhakti, Sufism, Music, Painting and Gardens in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Cultural blending today

Suppose a school band plays a folk tune from one region on an instrument from another region and adds a new rhythm. The tune is still recognisable, but sounds fresh.

Which idea from the chapter does this illustrate and why is it important for a culture to survive?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

The core tune continues.
New influences are adapted.
Adaptation keeps culture alive.

Answer: It illustrates the idea that Indian culture has 'adopted or adapted' outside currents while retaining its core, as Tansen did when he was influenced by a Sufi saint and yet also composed in praise of Krishna and Shiva. Such adaptation helps traditions stay alive and enriched.

Memory hook: Keep the root, welcome the branch.

Tricks to remember Bhakti, Sufism, Music, Painting and Gardens

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

KRG-M-C
Kabir, Ravidas, Guru Nanak, Mirabai, Chaitanya: bhakti voices.
Use it when: Saints list.
Ram-Rahim flour
Grains to flour: differences vanish in the divine.
Use it when: Kabir's message.
Chaar = four
Chaar = four: a charbagh is one garden divided into four parts by water channels.
Use it when: Mughal garden plan.

Bhakti, Sufism, Music, Painting and Gardens: solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Identify the saint: Kabir · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

Which bhakti saint, raised by a weaver couple, lived in the 15th century in present-day Uttar Pradesh?
(a) Ravidas
(b) Kabir
(c) Tukaram
(d) Chaitanya

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

NCERT describes Kabir this way; Ravidas came from a family of leather-workers (1 mark).

Answer: (b) Kabir

Example 2: Bhakti message (3 marks) · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

State three features of the bhakti movement and give examples of saints from three regions. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Path of devotion, needing no rituals or priests; songs in local languages (1 mark).
Messages of love, compassion, equality and oneness of God (1 mark).
Saints: Kabir/Ravidas (north), Tukaram or Namdev (west), Purandaradasa (south), Chaitanya (east) (1 mark).

Answer: Bhakti was a path of devotion that needed neither elaborate ritual nor priests; its verses and songs were composed in local languages and expressed love, compassion and equality, and stressed the oneness of God, breaking social barriers. Examples include Kabir and Ravidas in the north, Tukaram and Namdev in the west, Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa in the south, and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in the east.

Example 3: Assertion-reason: Sufi and bhakti · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

Assertion (A): Bhakti and Sufi traditions often overlapped.
Reason (R): Both emphasised devotion and music, and Sufis also adopted yogic and Vedantic techniques.
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

NCERT states that Sufis adopted such techniques and the traditions often overlapped (1 mark).

Answer: (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

Example 4: Mughal and Rajput painting (5 marks) · 5 marks · Long answerHarder board level

Compare Rajput and Mughal miniature paintings and show how they influenced each other. (5 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Rajput: 15th to late 19th century; Hindu themes (1 mark).
Typical features: lotus, banyan trees, elephants, peacocks, women with large eyes (1 mark).
Mughal: Persian influence, secular themes, court paintings, peak in Akbar's atelier with collaboration (1 mark).
Exchange of styles, techniques and colours; plants, gardens, animals, hunting scenes in Rajput work (1 mark).
Mughal painters migrated to Bikaner, blending styles, while Hindu themes continued (1 mark).

Answer: Rajput painting flourished from the 15th to the late 19th century and depicted traditional Hindu themes with typical symbols of beauty such as lotuses, banyan trees, elephants, cows and peacocks and women with large eyes. Mughal miniature painting, shaped by Persian influence, showed secular themes such as landscapes, court scenes and portraits, and reached its height in Akbar's atelier, where one artist drew the lines, another filled in the colours and a third added the finishing touches. The genres exchanged styles, techniques and colours: Rajput paintings took in plants, gardens, animals and court and hunting scenes, and some Mughal court painters migrated to Bikaner, blending styles, even as traditional Hindu themes continued to flourish.

Example 5: Case: Tansen and Akbar's court · 4 marks · Case-basedHOTS / competency

Read the case and answer.

In the late 15th century, under the patronage of Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior, the genre dhrupad was developed to new heights. Tansen, renowned for his expertise, went to Akbar's court and became one of its nine ratnas. It is said that Tansen was influenced by a Sufi saint, which shows in some compositions, while he also continued to compose in praise of Krishna and Shiva.

(i) Name the genre developed under Raja Mansingh Tomar. (1)
(ii) Who was Tansen's patron at the Mughal court? (1)
(iii) What does Tansen's career show about Indian culture? (2)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

(i) Dhrupad (1 mark).
(ii) Akbar (1 mark).
(iii) Indian culture accepted influences and enriched itself while retaining its core (2 marks).

Answer: (i) Dhrupad. (ii) Akbar. (iii) Tansen accepted a Sufi influence and still composed in praise of Krishna and Shiva, which NCERT presents as an example of the ability of Indian culture to accept influences and enrich itself while retaining its core.

Where students lose marks in Bhakti, Sufism, Music, Painting and Gardens

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

Mistake: Treating bhakti and Sufism as the same movement
Overlap noted in the chapter.
Wrong working
Sufism is another name for bhakti.
Right working
Bhakti is a devotional path from Indian traditions; Sufism is a devotional path in Islam; they often overlapped.
Do this: Say 'overlapped', not 'were the same'.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Wrong region for a saint
Many names.
Wrong working
Purandaradasa lived in Maharashtra.
Right working
Purandaradasa belonged to the south and the Vijayanagara empire.
Do this: Revise by region.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Describing Mughal painting as religious
Confusing with Rajput themes.
Wrong working
Mughal miniatures only showed religious scenes.
Right working
They depicted mainly secular themes though they also illustrated texts such as the Razmnama.
Do this: Contrast with Rajput themes.
Usually costs: 1 mark.

Exam tips

Give saint, region and message together in each line.
Use the phrase 'adopted or adapted' for cultural exchange.
Keep the tone neutral about invasions and conflicts: say what changed and what endured.
Add one example of continuity and one of change in every long answer.

Practice questions on Bhakti, Sufism, Music, Painting and Gardens

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
Which Sufi poet and singer is credited with developing the qawwali?
(a) Rumi
(b) Amir Khusrau
(c) Dara Shikoh
(d) Nizamuddin Auliya
Hint
Also the father of Urdu literature.
Answer
(b) Amir Khusrau
Q2 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level
What is a charbagh? Name one garden built on this plan. (2 marks)
Hint
Persian; four parts.
Answer
A charbagh is a Persian garden design in four parts with waterways, channels, fountains and terraces, representing the rivers of Paradise. The Mughal garden at Nishat Bagh, Srinagar, is an example.
Q3 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Explain how Kabir's couplet about wheat and flour conveys his message. (3 marks)
Hint
Distinctions disappear.
Answer
In the couplet, when wheat is ground into flour, the differences between individual grains disappear and they become one substance. In the same way, Kabir says, when a person realises the divine, all differences between Ram and Rahim, the names of God in Hinduism and Islam, dissolve. The everyday example conveys the oneness of God and criticises divisions based on ritual and name.
Q4 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): Carnatic music is said to have developed largely unaffected by Persian and Arabic influences.
Reason (R): Hindustani music in the north developed in the same period under varied influences.
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
Hint
Does R explain A?
Answer
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A. R describes the other stream; it does not explain why Carnatic music remained largely unaffected.
Q5 · 5 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency
'Participation of the people led to the thriving of cultural movements, even when rulers patronised them.' Support this statement with examples from bhakti gatherings, Sufi music and miniature painting. (5 marks)
Hint
People from all sections; bhajans; qawwalis; artists collaborating.
Answer
People from all sections of society took part in bhakti gatherings where bhajans were sung with instruments and dance, and the verses were composed in local languages so that ordinary people could understand them; saints such as Kabir, Ravidas and Mirabai came from varied backgrounds. Sufi saints sang qawwalis that fused local classical styles with their own, and the music reached people at shrines. In miniature painting, rulers like Akbar gave patronage, but many artists worked together in his atelier, and painters moved between courts and regions, blending styles. The bhajans composed then are still sung today, showing that popular participation, along with royal patronage, sustained these cultural currents.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1.Which text preserves Guru Nanak's teachings and the hymns of several saints?Show answer
The Guru Granth Sahib.
2.Who developed the dhrupad genre to new heights in the late 15th century?Show answer
Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior, as patron (with performers).
3.In whose atelier did Mughal miniature painting reach its height?Show answer
Akbar's.
4.What is paachitra?Show answer
A storytelling tradition using cloth pictures (paa = cloth, chitra = picture) in Odisha, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
5.Which Persian garden plan did the Mughals bring?Show answer
The charbagh.

Bhakti, Sufism, Music, Painting and Gardens: frequently asked questions

What was the role of bhakti saints?

They spread messages of devotion, equality and oneness of God in local languages, reduced social barriers and acted as a unifying force in unstable times.

What are the two streams of Indian classical music?

Hindustani in the north and Carnatic in the south.

What is a qawwali?

A Sufi devotional song form fusing Indian, Persian and Arabic singing traditions, associated with Amir Khusrau.