CBSE Class 12 · Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation

Harappan Seals, Script and Weights (Class 12 History, Theme 1)

Updated 15 October 2026 · Fact-checked

Harappan seals, usually of steatite, carried an animal motif and a line of script; pressed on clay over a knot, they made sealings that protected goods and identified the sender. The script, with 375-400 signs written right to left, is undeciphered. Cubical chert weights followed a binary and then decimal system.

Notice that an unbroken clay sealing on the knot proved the goods were untouched and showed who sent them.

Illustration drawn for QuestionBuddy.

Understand Harappan Seals, Script and Weights

Why this topic matters. Seals, writing and weights are the three tools that made Harappan long-distance exchange work. They also feature in debates on Harappan religion, authority and decline. NCERT covers them in section 7 of Theme 1, with seals appearing again in the sections on discovery and interpretation.

1. The seal as an artefact. NCERT calls the seal possibly the most distinctive Harappan artefact. Seals were made of steatite, a soft stone, and usually carry an animal motif and signs of the script. Some animals, such as the one-horned animal often called the 'unicorn', seem to be mythical composite creatures.

2. Seals and sealings: how they worked. Seals and sealings were used for long-distance communication:

1. A bag of goods was tied at the mouth with rope.
2. Wet clay was put on the knot and one or more seals were pressed into it. The impression is the sealing.
3. If the bag arrived with the sealing intact, the goods had not been tampered with.
4. The sealing also showed the identity of the sender.

A sealing from Ropar shows several seal impressions on one lump of clay. Harappan seals found abroad, a Mesopotamian-type cylinder seal with an Indus-style humped bull, and a round 'Persian Gulf' seal from Bahrain with Harappan motifs are evidence of contact with distant lands. Seals also show ships and boats.

3. An enigmatic script.

Seals usually carry a line of writing, probably the name and title of the owner. The motif may have conveyed meaning to people who could not read.
Most inscriptions are short; the longest has about 26 signs.
The script is undeciphered, but it was clearly not alphabetical (one sign for each vowel or consonant) because it has too many signs: between 375 and 400.
It was written from right to left: on some seals the signs are spaced out on the right but squeezed together on the left, so the engraver seems to have begun on the right and run short of room.
Writing occurs on seals, copper tools, jar rims, copper and terracotta tablets, jewellery, bone rods and even an ancient signboard at Dholavira. There may also have been writing on perishable materials, which raises the question of whether literacy was widespread.
Why it is 'enigmatic': it cannot be read, so it tells us little directly; NCERT notes that material evidence, not the script, is what helps us understand the civilisation. A bilingual inscription, if found, could settle questions about the languages the Harappans spoke.

4. Weights.

Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually of a stone called chert, generally cubical, with no markings.
Lower denominations were binary: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32. Higher denominations followed the decimal system: 160, 200, 320, 640.
Smaller weights were probably for jewellery and beads. Metal scale-pans have also been found.
Weights were made at specialised centres such as Chanhudaro (weight-making), and Dilmun weights in Bahrain followed the Harappan standard.

5. Seals in interpretation and discovery.

*Religion*: some seals seem to show ritual scenes; plant motifs are taken to indicate nature worship; a figure seated cross-legged in a 'yogic' posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, has been called 'proto-Shiva'. NCERT warns that this reading is speculative: the Rigvedic god Rudra (a name used for Shiva in later Puranic traditions) is neither Pashupati nor a yogi in the Rigveda, and some scholars suggest the figure may be a shaman.
*Discovery*: Cunningham received a Harappan seal but could not place it in time (his report on it is dated 1875). Daya Ram Sahni found seals at Harappa and R.D. Banerji found similar seals at Mohenjodaro; on this basis John Marshall announced a new civilisation in 1924. Similar seals at Mesopotamian sites showed it was contemporaneous with Mesopotamia.
*Decline*: after about 1900 BCE, seals, the script, distinctive beads and standardised weights disappeared, replaced by local weights. NCERT reads this as a sign that a strong unifying element, perhaps the Harappan state, came to an end.

What the three tell us together. Sealings secured goods, writing identified owners, and standard weights made exchange fair across a huge area. The uniformity of these objects is one argument for some kind of central control.

Key quotations

Short lines worth knowing by heart: who says them, when, and why they matter.

possibly the most distinctive artefact
NCERT, Theme 1, opening: Describing the Harappan seal.
Use it to open any answer on seals.
Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long-distance communication.
NCERT, Theme 1, section 7.1: The first line on how sealings worked.
The purpose in one sentence; then explain the knot of clay.
the script was written from right to left
NCERT, Theme 1, section 7.2: Inferred from spacing on seals.
Shows how a fact is inferred even when the script is unread.
Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights
NCERT, Theme 1, section 7.3: Introducing chert weights.
Links weights to trade and standardisation.

Harappan Seals, Script and Weights: key facts

Seal: Material steatite
Motif an animal
Script a line, probably the owner's name and title; The motif may have spoken to those who could not read.
Sealing: 1.Rope on bag
2.wet clay on knot
3.seal pressed
4.intact sealing shows goods untampered and the sender's identity; Used for long-distance communication.
Script: four facts: 375-400 signs; longest about 26 signs; not alphabetical; right to left; Undeciphered to date.
Weights: Chert, cubical, unmarked; binary 1-2-4-8-16-32, then decimal 160-200-320-640; Small weights for jewellery and beads; metal scale-pans found.
Seals in the discovery story: 1.1875 Cunningham's report on a seal
2.Sahni (Harappa) and Banerji (Mohenjodaro) find seals
3.1924 Marshall announces the civilisation; Mesopotamian finds proved it was contemporary with Mesopotamia.
Disappearance after c. 1900 BCE: Seals, script, special beads and standard weights vanish; local weights used; Suggests the end of a unifying element, perhaps the state.

Material	steatite
Motif	an animal
Script	a line, probably the owner's name and title

How to answer Harappan Seals, Script and Weights questions

Expect 1-mark items (material of seals, number of signs, binary weights), 3-mark answers (uses of seals and sealings; why the script is enigmatic; challenges in deciphering it), source questions on sealings, and 8-mark questions where seals serve as evidence for trade, religion or authority.

1Decide which of the three the question is about: seals (use), script (features, problems) or weights (system).
2For seals, explain the knot-of-clay process and the two results: no tampering, sender's identity.
3For the script, give the four facts (signs, length, not alphabetical, right to left) and say why it is still unread.
4For weights, write the material, shape and both number series.
5In interpretation questions, keep NCERT's caution: 'proto-Shiva' is a reading, not a fact.

Harappan Seals, Script and Weights in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Sealings as tamper-proof packaging

Suppose you order a phone online and it arrives in a box with a printed security tape across the opening and the seller's name on it.

How does this resemble a Harappan sealing? What two things does each show?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

The tape covers the opening as the clay covered the knot.
If the tape is unbroken, the box was not opened on the way: an intact sealing showed goods were not tampered with.
The seller's name identifies the sender, as the seal impression did.

Answer: Both protect goods in transit: an unbroken seal shows no tampering, and the mark on it identifies the sender.

Memory hook: Unbroken seal, honest parcel.

Binary weights

Imagine a jeweller who has only five small weights of 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 grams.

Show how 27 grams of beads can be weighed, and say why a binary series is useful.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Write 27 as a sum of the weights: 16 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 27.
Each weight is double the one before, so any whole number up to 31 can be made with one of each.
Few weights cover many values, which suits small, precise items like beads.

Answer: Use 16 + 8 + 2 + 1 grams. A doubling series lets a handful of weights measure every whole value up to their total, which is why it suits beads and jewellery.

Memory hook: Keep doubling: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32.

Tricks to remember Harappan Seals, Script and Weights

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

STAR for the script
Signs 375-400; Twenty-six is the longest; Alphabet it is not; Right to left.
Use it when: Features of the Harappan script.
Double, then decimal
Small weights double (1 to 32); big weights go 160, 200, 320, 640.
Use it when: The weight system.
Knot, clay, press, check
Four steps of a sealing; the check gives two results: untouched goods, known sender.
Use it when: Uses of seals and sealings.

Harappan Seals, Script and Weights: solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Material of weights · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

Harappan weights were usually made of
(a) steatite
(b) chert
(c) carnelian
(d) faience

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Weights were usually of chert, generally cubical and unmarked; steatite was used for seals (1 mark).

Answer: (b) chert

Example 2: Uses of seals and sealings · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level

Explain why the Harappans used seals and sealings. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Purpose: to make long-distance communication and exchange of goods safe (1 mark).
Process: a bag's mouth was tied with rope, wet clay put on the knot and one or more seals pressed into it (1 mark).
Result: an intact sealing showed the goods were not tampered with and conveyed the sender's identity (1 mark).

Answer: Seals and sealings made long-distance exchange secure. When goods were sent, the mouth of the bag was tied with rope and wet clay was placed on the knot; one or more seals were pressed into it to leave an impression, the sealing. If the bag arrived with the sealing unbroken, the receiver knew it had not been tampered with on the way, and the impression also told him who had sent it.

Example 3: Assertion and reason on the script · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

Assertion (A): The Harappan script was not alphabetical.
Reason (R): The longest Harappan inscription has about 26 signs.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Both are true, but the script is shown to be non-alphabetical by its 375-400 signs, not by the length of inscriptions (1 mark).

Answer: (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.

Example 4: Why the script is called enigmatic · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

What makes the Harappan script 'enigmatic'? Support your answer with three of its features. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

It remains undeciphered, so its meaning is a mystery (1 mark).
It has 375-400 signs, too many for an alphabet, and most inscriptions are very short (the longest about 26 signs), giving little to work with (1 mark).
It was written right to left on many objects, but no bilingual inscription has been found to help decipher it (1 mark).

Answer: The script is enigmatic because it has not been deciphered. We know some facts about it: it has between 375 and 400 signs, so it was not alphabetical; most inscriptions are short, the longest having about 26 signs; and spacing on seals shows it was written from right to left. It appears on seals, tools, jar rims, tablets, jewellery, bone rods and a signboard, yet without a bilingual inscription we cannot read it or know the language it records.

Example 5: Source-based: the knot of clay · 4 marks · Source-basedHarder board level

Read the source (written for this page from the NCERT account) and answer.

A merchant at a coastal town ties the mouth of a sack of beads with rope, presses soft clay over the knot and stamps it with his steatite seal, which shows a bull and a short line of signs. The sack travels by cart and boat to a city far inland. There the receiver turns the clay over in his hand before opening the sack.

(i) Why does the receiver examine the clay before opening the sack? (1)
(ii) What did the line of signs on the seal probably record? (1)
(iii) How does the source help explain the presence of Harappan seals at sites outside the subcontinent? (2)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

(i) To check that the sealing is intact, showing the goods were not tampered with (1 mark).
(ii) Probably the name and title of the owner (1 mark).
(iii) Seals and sealings travelled with goods in long-distance exchange; seals found at Mesopotamian sites and in Bahrain show such exchange reached distant lands (2 marks).

Answer: (i) An unbroken sealing proves that nobody opened the sack on the way. (ii) Probably the owner's name and title. (iii) Seals were used whenever goods travelled long distances, so traders carried them or their impressions along trade routes; this explains why Harappan seals turn up at Mesopotamian sites and why a 'Persian Gulf' seal in Bahrain carries Harappan motifs.

Example 6: Long answer: what seals tell historians · 8 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

"The Harappan seal is a key to understanding the civilisation, though it also shows the limits of our knowledge." Discuss. (8 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Introduction: seal described as possibly the most distinctive artefact; steatite, motif, script (1 mark).
Trade and communication: sealings protected goods and identified senders (1 mark).
Distant contact: seals at Mesopotamian sites, Persian Gulf seal, ships on seals (1 mark).
Discovery and dating: Cunningham's seal (1875); Sahni and Banerji's finds; Marshall's announcement in 1924; contemporaneity with Mesopotamia (1 mark).
Authority and decline: uniform seals, script and weights; their disappearance after c. 1900 BCE (1 mark).
Limits 1: the script is undeciphered (375-400 signs, short inscriptions) (1 mark).
Limits 2: religious readings like 'proto-Shiva' are speculative; Rudra in the Rigveda is neither Pashupati nor a yogi; perhaps a shaman (1 mark).
Conclusion: seals are rich evidence, but interpretation depends on context and frames of reference (1 mark).

Answer: The Harappan seal, usually of steatite with an animal motif and a line of script, is possibly the most distinctive artefact of the civilisation, and historians use it in many ways.

First, seals explain how exchange worked: pressed into clay over the knot of a bag, they produced sealings that showed whether goods had been tampered with and identified the sender. Second, they reveal distant contact: Harappan seals have been found at Mesopotamian sites, a round seal in Bahrain carries Harappan motifs, and seals depict ships and boats. Third, seals were central to discovering the civilisation: Cunningham reported a seal in 1875 but could not date it; after Daya Ram Sahni and R.D. Banerji found similar seals at Harappa and Mohenjodaro, John Marshall announced a new civilisation in 1924, and similar seals in Mesopotamia showed that it was contemporary with Mesopotamia. Fourth, the uniform seals, script and weights suggest a unifying authority, and their disappearance after about 1900 BCE is read as a sign that this authority, perhaps the state, ended.

Yet seals also mark the limits of our knowledge. The script, with 375-400 signs and short inscriptions, remains undeciphered, so we do not know what the owners' names or titles were. Readings of religion from seals are speculative: the figure called 'proto-Shiva' does not match the Rigvedic Rudra, who is neither Pashupati nor a yogi, and some scholars think it may be a shaman. The seal is therefore a key, but one that opens only some doors; its meaning depends on the context and frames of reference archaeologists build around it.

Where students lose marks in Harappan Seals, Script and Weights

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

Mistake: Calling the seal and the sealing the same thing
The seal is the stamp; the sealing is the clay impression.
Wrong working
Seals were tied on bags of goods.
Right working
Seals were pressed into wet clay on the knot; the impression (sealing) secured the bag.
Do this: Stamp = seal; clay impression = sealing.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Writing that the script was alphabetical or has been read
Students guess from modern scripts.
Wrong working
The Harappan script had about 40 letters.
Right working
It had 375-400 signs, was not alphabetical and is still undeciphered.
Do this: Learn STAR.
Usually costs: 1-2 marks.
Mistake: Getting the weight series wrong
Mixing up which part is binary.
Wrong working
Lower weights were decimal: 10, 20, 30.
Right working
Lower weights were binary (1 to 32); higher ones decimal (160, 200, 320, 640).
Do this: Double first, decimal later.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Stating 'proto-Shiva' as a fact
The label sounds settled.
Wrong working
Harappans worshipped Shiva, as the proto-Shiva seal proves.
Right working
Some regard the figure as proto-Shiva, but this is speculative; it does not match the Rigvedic Rudra.
Do this: Use 'has been regarded as' and give NCERT's objection.
Usually costs: The evaluation mark in long answers.

Exam tips

Asked in: 2023 board paper 61/1/1 Q22(b) (3 marks, why seals and sealings were used); 2024 board paper 61/2/1 Q22(a) (3 marks, why the script is called enigmatic); 2024-25 sample paper Q22(B) (3 marks, challenges in deciphering the script); a 2023 board assertion-reason item on weights and scale-pans (61/3/1). Our answers are our own.
In any answer on trade or authority, seals and standard weights are your strongest evidence; name both.
Write numbers exactly: 375-400 signs, about 26 signs, 1-32 binary, 160-640 decimal.
When a question says 'examine', end with a limit: the script is unread, interpretations are tentative.

Practice questions on Harappan Seals, Script and Weights

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
The lower denominations of Harappan weights followed which series?
(a) 1, 3, 9, 27
(b) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32
(c) 10, 20, 30, 40
(d) 1, 5, 10, 50
Hint
Binary.
Answer
(b) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32.
Q2 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level
Give two features of Harappan weights other than their number system. (2 marks)
Hint
Material, shape, markings, use.
Answer
Any two: usually made of chert; generally cubical; carried no markings; the small ones were likely meant for jewellery and beads; scale-pans of metal have been found too.
Q3 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Why has nobody yet been able to read the Harappan script? Give three reasons. (3 marks)
Hint
Too many signs, too little text, no key.
Answer
The script has 375-400 signs, so it is not an alphabet and each sign's value is unknown. Most inscriptions are very short, the longest about 26 signs, which gives too little text to find patterns. Any writing on perishable materials is lost. No bilingual inscription has been found that could act as a key, so we do not even know which language the signs record.
Q4 · 2 marks · Very short answerHarder board level
How do we know the Harappan script was written from right to left even though it cannot be read? (2 marks)
Hint
Look at the spacing.
Answer
Some seals show wide spacing on the right and cramped signs on the left, as if the engraver began on the right and ran short of space towards the left.
Q5 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Why is the disappearance of seals and standardised weights after about 1900 BCE important for historians? (3 marks)
Hint
What did uniform objects need?
Answer
Seals, the script and standard weights were uniform across a vast area, which suggests a strong unifying element. After about 1900 BCE they disappear, local weights replace the standard ones, and long-distance trade and writing vanish too. Historians read this as evidence that this unifying element, perhaps the Harappan state, came to an end, since particular causes like floods or drying rivers cannot explain the collapse of the whole civilisation.
Q6 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
Suppose a student argues that the 'proto-Shiva' seal proves that Shiva was worshipped in Harappan times. Evaluate the argument. (3 marks)
Hint
Rudra in the Rigveda.
Answer
The argument goes too far. The seal shows a figure seated cross-legged in a 'yogic' posture, sometimes with animals, and some identify it as an early form of Shiva. But this reading works backwards from later traditions. The earliest text, the Rigveda, mentions Rudra (a name later used for Shiva), yet Rudra there is neither Pashupati nor a yogi, so the image does not match. Some scholars suggest a shaman. The seal shows a ritual-looking figure, not proof of Shiva worship.
Q7 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
A bilingual inscription with Harappan and Mesopotamian writing is discovered. Explain two questions it might help answer, and one it might not. (4 marks)
Hint
Language versus everyday life.
Answer
It might help decipher the signs and settle which language the Harappans spoke, and it might reveal the names and titles written on seals. It might not tell us much about questions that the script was never used for, such as who exactly ruled, how widespread literacy was or the roles of women in craft, since most inscriptions are very short labels; material evidence would still be needed for those.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1.What stone were seals made of?Show answer
Steatite.
2.What did the line of writing on a seal probably contain?Show answer
The name and title of the owner.
3.How many signs does the Harappan script have?Show answer
Between 375 and 400.
4.In which direction was the script written?Show answer
Right to left.
5.Give the higher denominations of Harappan weights.Show answer
160, 200, 320, 640 (decimal).
6.Where was an ancient signboard with Harappan signs found?Show answer
Dholavira.

Harappan Seals, Script and Weights: frequently asked questions

What is the difference between a seal and a sealing?

A seal is the carved stamp, usually of steatite. A sealing is the impression it leaves in wet clay, placed on the knot of a bag of goods to protect it and identify the sender.

Why has the Harappan script not been deciphered?

It has 375-400 signs, most inscriptions are very short, and no bilingual inscription has been found to act as a key, so the language and the value of the signs are unknown.

What was special about Harappan weights?

They were usually cubical chert blocks without markings, following a binary series for small values (1 to 32) and a decimal series for large ones (160 to 640). Dilmun weights in Bahrain followed the same standard.

Is the proto-Shiva seal proof of Shiva worship?

No. It is an interpretation. The figure sits in a 'yogic' posture with animals, but the Rigvedic Rudra is neither Pashupati nor a yogi, and some scholars think the figure is a shaman.