CBSE Class 12 · Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation

Harappan Craft Production and Trade (Class 12 History, Theme 1)

Updated 15 October 2026 · Fact-checked

Harappan craft production included bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making, done both in small specialised centres such as Chanhudaro, Nageshwar and Balakot and in big cities. Raw materials came from settlements near sources, expeditions to Khetri and south India, and contact with Oman, Bahrain and Mesopotamia.

Notice that materials like copper and gold flowed in from distant places, while tiny Chanhudaro specialised in making crafts.

Illustration drawn for QuestionBuddy.

Understand Harappan Craft Production and Trade

Why this topic matters. The Harappans needed stone, metal, shell and timber that the alluvial plains of the Indus did not have. How they made things and how they got their materials tells us about specialisation, organisation and long-distance contact. NCERT treats this in sections 5 and 6 of Theme 1.

1. Chanhudaro: a craft town. Chanhudaro was a tiny settlement of less than 7 hectares, compared with 125 hectares for Mohenjodaro, yet it was given over almost entirely to crafts: bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making. Its size shows that a settlement did not have to be big to be economically important.

2. Beads: materials, shapes and techniques.

*Materials*: stones such as carnelian (red), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals such as copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta. Some beads joined two or more stones; some were stone with gold caps.
*Shapes*: disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped and segmented; some were incised, painted or etched.
*Steatite* was a very soft stone. Beads were also moulded from a paste of steatite powder, which allowed many shapes. How the tiny steatite micro bead was made is still unexplained.
*Carnelian*: experiments by archaeologists show the red colour came from firing the yellowish raw material at different stages. The sequence was: nodules chipped into rough shapes → finely flaked into the final form → grinding, polishing and drilling. Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholavira.

3. Shell centres. Nageshwar and Balakot, both near the coast, specialised in shell objects: bangles, ladles and inlay, which went to other settlements. Finished beads from Chanhudaro and Lothal were probably carried to the big cities, Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

4. How archaeologists identify a centre of craft production. They look for four kinds of evidence:

1. raw material: stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore;
2. tools;
3. unfinished objects;
4. rejects and waste. Waste is the strongest clue: when shell or stone is cut, pieces are thrown away where the work was done. Larger waste pieces were sometimes reused for small objects, but tiny bits stayed in the work area. Such traces show that crafts were practised in large cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa too, not only in small centres.

5. Moving goods. Clay was local, but stone, timber and metal came from outside the alluvial plain. Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest carts carried goods and people overland; routes along the Indus and its tributaries and coastal routes were probably also used.

6. Strategies for procuring materials within the subcontinent.

*Settlements near sources*: Nageshwar and Balakot (shell); Shortughai in Afghanistan, near the best source of lapis lazuli; Lothal, near carnelian (from Bharuch), steatite (south Rajasthan and north Gujarat) and metal (Rajasthan).
*Expeditions*: to the Khetri region of Rajasthan for copper and to south India for gold. Finds of Harappan steatite micro beads there show contact with local people. The Khetri area had the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture, with non-Harappan pottery and many copper objects; its people may have supplied copper.

7. Contact with distant lands.

Oman: copper probably came from Oman; chemical analysis shows traces of nickel in both Omani copper and Harappan artefacts. A large Harappan jar coated with thick black clay has been found at Omani sites; the Harappans may have exchanged its contents for copper.
Mesopotamian texts of the third millennium BCE name Magan (perhaps Oman), Dilmun (probably Bahrain) and Meluhha (possibly the Harappan region). Products from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold and varieties of wood. A myth mentions Meluhha's haja-bird, which some think was the peacock.
Other evidence: Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads found far away; a round 'Persian Gulf' seal from Bahrain with Harappan motifs; Dilmun weights that followed the Harappan standard.
Contact was probably by sea: Mesopotamian texts call Meluhha a land of seafarers, and seals depict ships and boats.

How it links to the rest of the theme. Seals and sealings protected goods in transit, and the precise binary-decimal weights regulated exchange (see the seals and weights topic). Craft specialisation and procurement over long distances are also used as evidence for some kind of central authority.

Key quotations

Short lines worth knowing by heart: who says them, when, and why they matter.

almost exclusively devoted to craft production
NCERT, Theme 1, section 5: On Chanhudaro, a settlement of less than 7 hectares.
Shows specialisation: a small place could be a major craft centre.
waste is one of the best indicators of craft work
NCERT, Theme 1, section 5.1: On how archaeologists identify centres of production.
The key line for any question on identifying craft centres.
How the steatite micro bead was made remains a puzzle
NCERT, Theme 1, section 5: On bead-making techniques for soft stone.
A reminder that archaeology cannot answer every question about technology.
Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers.
NCERT, Theme 1, section 6.2: On how contact with Oman, Bahrain and Mesopotamia took place.
Supports the view that long-distance contact was by sea, along with ships shown on seals.

Harappan Craft Production and Trade: key facts

Craft centres and their crafts: Chanhudaro: beads, shell, metal, seals, weights; Nageshwar and Balakot: shell (bangles, ladles, inlay); drills at Chanhudaro, Lothal, Dholavira; Chanhudaro is under 7 hectares; Mohenjodaro is 125 hectares.
Four clues to a craft centre: Raw material
Tools
Unfinished objects
Rejects and waste; Waste is the best indicator.
Carnelian bead process: 1.Fire for red colour
2.chip nodules
3.flake finely
4.grind, polish, drill; Firing was done at various stages.
Sources inside the subcontinent: Shortughai: lapis lazuli; Bharuch: carnelian; south Rajasthan and north Gujarat: steatite; Khetri: copper; south India: gold; Two strategies: settlements near sources, and expeditions.
Distant lands: Magan perhaps Oman (copper)
Dilmun probably Bahrain
Meluhha possibly the Harappan region; Meluhha products: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, wood.
Evidence of contact: Nickel traces; black-clay-coated jar in Oman; seals, weights, dice, beads abroad; Dilmun weights on the Harappan standard; ships on seals; Use at least three in a 3-mark answer.

Magan	perhaps Oman (copper)
Dilmun	probably Bahrain
Meluhha	possibly the Harappan region

How to answer Harappan Craft Production and Trade questions

This topic comes as 1-mark identification items (which site, which source), 3-mark short answers (how craft centres were identified, how materials were procured, contact with distant lands) and source-based questions on bead-making or trade. It also feeds 8-mark answers on the Harappan economy.

1Read the command word: 'explain how' wants a method (the four clues); 'prove' or 'examine' wants evidence.
2Name the place with each point: Chanhudaro, Nageshwar, Balakot, Shortughai, Lothal, Khetri, Oman.
3For each point give the evidence an archaeologist actually found: waste, drills, nickel traces, the coated jar, seals and weights abroad.
4Separate the two strategies inside the subcontinent (settlements near sources; expeditions) from contact with distant lands.
5Close with what the evidence tells us: specialisation, organised supply and long-distance exchange.

Harappan Craft Production and Trade in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Waste as evidence of a craft centre

Suppose an archaeologist digs two rooms in an old town. One has a few finished glass bangles. The other has broken bangle pieces, lumps of half-melted glass and a small iron rod.

Which room was probably a workshop, and why?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Finished objects can be carried anywhere, so they do not show where something was made.
Broken pieces, raw lumps and a tool are rejects, raw material and a tool: the clues NCERT lists.
Waste stays where the work was done.

Answer: The second room: raw material, a tool and waste together show production, just as cut shell and stone waste mark Harappan craft centres.

Memory hook: Finished goods travel; waste stays at home.

Settlements near sources of raw material

Imagine a furniture company that opens a small sawmill right next to a forest, though its showroom is in a big city.

Which Harappan strategy does this resemble? Give two examples.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

The company places a unit where the raw material is.
The Harappans did the same: Nageshwar and Balakot where shell was found, Shortughai near lapis lazuli.
Lothal stood near carnelian, steatite and metal sources.

Answer: It resembles setting up settlements near sources of raw material, such as Nageshwar and Balakot for shell and Shortughai for lapis lazuli.

Memory hook: Go where the material is.

Tricks to remember Harappan Craft Production and Trade

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

RTUW: four clues
Raw material, Tools, Unfinished objects, Waste: 'Real Tools Usually Waste'.
Use it when: How archaeologists identify craft centres.
MO-DB-MH: three names in Mesopotamian texts
Pair the initials: Magan-Oman (MO), Dilmun-Bahrain (DB), Meluhha-Harappan region (MH). Say 'MO, DB, MH' like a car number plate.
Use it when: Contact with distant lands.
Shell by the sea
Nageshwar and Balakot are both on the coast, so they did shell work. Chanhudaro is inland: beads and many crafts.
Use it when: Telling the craft centres apart.

Harappan Craft Production and Trade: solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Source of a raw material · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

Which Harappan settlement was established near the best source of lapis lazuli?
(a) Lothal
(b) Shortughai
(c) Balakot
(d) Kalibangan

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Lapis lazuli is a blue stone; its best source was in Afghanistan, where Shortughai stood (1 mark).

Answer: (b) Shortughai

Example 2: Identifying craft centres · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level

Explain how archaeologists identify centres of craft production in the Harappan civilisation. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

They look for raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells and copper ore, and for tools (1 mark).
They look for unfinished objects and for rejects and waste; waste is the best indicator because pieces are discarded where cutting is done (1 mark).
Such traces show crafts both in small centres like Chanhudaro and in big cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa (1 mark).

Answer: Archaeologists look for four kinds of evidence: raw material (stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore), tools, unfinished objects, and rejects and waste. Waste is the best clue: when shell or stone is cut, the pieces are thrown away at the place of work, and even when larger pieces were reused, tiny bits were left behind. Using these traces they have found craft production in specialised centres such as Chanhudaro and also in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

Example 3: Assertion and reason on Oman · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

Assertion (A): Copper used by the Harappans probably came partly from Oman.
Reason (R): Chemical analyses show traces of nickel in both Omani copper and Harappan artefacts.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Both statements are in the NCERT text, and the common nickel trace suggests a common origin, which is why historians think the copper came from Oman (1 mark).

Answer: (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

Example 4: Source-based: a bead workshop · 4 marks · Source-basedHarder board level

Read the source (written for this page from the NCERT account) and answer.

A small site of under 7 hectares has yielded heaps of chipped carnelian and jasper, half-drilled beads, broken beads, fine drills and a few finished necklaces. The site lies far from any big city. Nearby, a large city of 125 hectares has yielded many finished beads but few drills.

(i) Which Harappan site does the small site resemble? (1)
(ii) Give two pieces of evidence in the source that show it was a centre of production. (1)
(iii) What does the source suggest about the movement of goods between the two places? (2)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

(i) Chanhudaro, a tiny settlement given over almost entirely to crafts (1 mark).
(ii) Unfinished (half-drilled) beads, rejects (broken beads) and tools (drills): any two (1 mark).
(iii) The finished beads were probably carried from the small centre to the city, as NCERT suggests for beads from Chanhudaro and Lothal going to Mohenjodaro and Harappa; this implies organised exchange (2 marks).

Answer: (i) Chanhudaro. (ii) Half-drilled beads, broken beads and drills: unfinished objects, rejects and tools. (iii) Beads were made in the specialised centre and carried to the large city, where they were used or exchanged. This shows that finished products moved from small craft centres to big urban centres such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa, so production and distribution were organised.

Example 5: Proving long-distance contact · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

"The Harappans had contact with distant lands." Support the statement with evidence. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Oman: nickel traces in Omani copper and Harappan artefacts; a Harappan jar coated with black clay at Omani sites (1 mark).
Mesopotamia: texts of the third millennium BCE mention Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha and list Meluhha's products (carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, wood) (1 mark).
Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads found abroad; Dilmun weights on the Harappan standard; ships on seals show sea contact (1 mark).

Answer: First, copper probably came from Oman: chemical analysis shows nickel in both Omani copper and Harappan objects, and a large Harappan jar coated with thick black clay has been found at Omani sites. Second, Mesopotamian texts of the third millennium BCE mention Dilmun (probably Bahrain), Magan (perhaps Oman) and Meluhha (possibly the Harappan region), and list Meluhha's carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold and wood. Third, Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads have been found far away, Dilmun weights followed the Harappan standard, and seals show ships, so contact was probably by sea.

Example 6: Long answer: the Harappan economy of crafts · 8 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

"Craft production and the procurement of raw materials show a well-organised Harappan economy." Examine the statement. (8 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Introduction: the alluvial plain lacked stone, metal and timber, so supply had to be organised (1 mark).
Specialised centres: Chanhudaro (beads, shell, metal, seals, weights), Nageshwar and Balakot (shell) (1 mark).
Skilled techniques: carnelian firing, chipping, flaking, grinding, polishing, drilling; drills at Chanhudaro, Lothal, Dholavira; steatite paste beads (1 mark).
Identification through waste shows crafts in big cities too, and finished goods moved to Mohenjodaro and Harappa (1 mark).
Settlements near sources: Shortughai (lapis lazuli), Lothal (carnelian, steatite, metal) (1 mark).
Expeditions to Khetri (copper) and south India (gold); Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture (1 mark).
Distant contact: Oman nickel, coated jar, Meluhha in Mesopotamian texts, seals and weights abroad (1 mark).
Evaluation: transport by carts, rivers and sea, sealings and standard weights suggest organisation, possibly by some authority, though we cannot say who (1 mark).

Answer: The Harappan heartland was an alluvial plain with clay but without good stone, metal or timber, so crafts depended on organised supply. Production was specialised: Chanhudaro, under 7 hectares, was devoted almost wholly to bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making, while coastal Nageshwar and Balakot made shell bangles, ladles and inlay. Techniques were skilled: carnelian was fired for its red colour, chipped, flaked, ground, polished and drilled, and specialised drills occur at Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholavira; soft steatite was even turned into paste and moulded. Waste and unfinished objects show crafts in Mohenjodaro and Harappa as well, and finished beads seem to have moved from small centres to the cities.

Materials were procured in planned ways. Settlements were placed near sources: Shortughai near lapis lazuli, Lothal near carnelian from Bharuch, steatite from south Rajasthan and north Gujarat, and Rajasthan's metal. Expeditions went to Khetri for copper and to south India for gold, and the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura people may have supplied copper. Contact reached overseas: nickel traces link Omani copper with Harappan artefacts, a black-clay-coated Harappan jar lies at Omani sites, Mesopotamian texts name Meluhha and its products, and Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads have been found abroad. Bullock carts, river and coastal routes moved the goods, sealings guarded them and standard weights regulated exchange.

Taken together, the evidence shows a well-organised economy. Whether a king, merchants or several authorities did the organising cannot be settled from the archaeological record, but such planning is one argument historians use for some form of central authority.

Where students lose marks in Harappan Craft Production and Trade

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

Mistake: Listing finished objects as proof of a craft centre
Finished goods can be carried anywhere.
Wrong working
Chanhudaro was a craft centre because many beautiful beads were found there.
Right working
Chanhudaro was a craft centre because raw material, tools, unfinished beads and waste were found there.
Do this: Use the four clues: raw material, tools, unfinished objects, waste.
Usually costs: 1-2 marks in a 3-mark answer.
Mistake: Mixing up Magan, Dilmun and Meluhha
Three similar names in one paragraph.
Wrong working
Meluhha was Oman and Magan was the Harappan region.
Right working
Magan was perhaps Oman, Dilmun probably Bahrain, and Meluhha possibly the Harappan region.
Do this: Use the MO-DB-MH trick and add 'perhaps', 'probably', 'possibly' as NCERT does.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Stating guesses as certainties
NCERT hedges: copper 'probably' from Oman; haja-bird 'some think' the peacock.
Wrong working
The Harappans certainly bought all their copper from Oman.
Right working
Copper was probably also brought from Oman; Khetri in Rajasthan was another source.
Do this: Keep the historian's caution words.
Usually costs: Loses the analysis mark in HOTS answers.
Mistake: Confusing the two internal strategies
Both involve going to a source.
Wrong working
The Harappans sent an expedition and built Shortughai.
Right working
Shortughai is a settlement near a source; Khetri and south India are expedition areas.
Do this: Settlement = people stayed; expedition = people went and came back.
Usually costs: 1 mark.

Exam tips

Asked in: 2024 board paper 61/4/1 Q22(a) (3 marks, how archaeologists identified craft centres); 2026 board paper 61/5/1 Q22(a) (3 marks, what beads and jewellery reveal about craft and trade); 2025-26 sample paper Q22(B) (3 marks, Harappan access to distant lands); 2023-24 sample paper Q8 (1 mark, coastal shell centres); 2026-27 sample paper Q2 (1 mark, source of carnelian). The answers on this page are our own.
Always pair a place with its evidence: 'Shortughai, near lapis lazuli'; 'Khetri, copper'.
For distant contact, three evidence points (nickel, coated jar, Mesopotamian texts, objects abroad) earn the 3 marks.
Mark Chanhudaro, Nageshwar, Balakot and Lothal on the Harappan map list; this topic doubles as map revision.

Practice questions on Harappan Craft Production and Trade

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
Which of the following was NOT a product of Meluhha mentioned in Mesopotamian texts?
(a) Carnelian
(b) Lapis lazuli
(c) Cotton
(d) Varieties of wood
Hint
NCERT lists five products.
Answer
(c) Cotton. The texts list carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold and varieties of wood.
Q2 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level
Name the two coastal Harappan settlements that specialised in shell objects, and list three objects they made. (2 marks)
Hint
Bangles are one.
Answer
Nageshwar and Balakot; they made shell bangles, ladles and inlay.
Q3 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Describe two strategies the Harappans used to procure raw materials from within the subcontinent, with one example each. (3 marks)
Hint
Settle near the source; send expeditions.
Answer
(1) Settlements near sources: Nageshwar and Balakot where shell was available; Shortughai near lapis lazuli; Lothal near carnelian, steatite and metal. (2) Expeditions: to the Khetri region of Rajasthan for copper and to south India for gold; steatite micro beads found there show contact with local people, and the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture may have supplied copper.
Q4 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Why do archaeologists think that crafts were practised in Mohenjodaro and Harappa as well as in small centres? (3 marks)
Hint
Tiny bits left behind.
Answer
Cutting shell or stone leaves waste at the place of work. Larger waste pieces were sometimes reused to make smaller objects, but minute bits remained in the work area. Such traces found in Mohenjodaro and Harappa show that craft production went on in these big cities too, alongside specialised centres such as Chanhudaro.
Q5 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): Chanhudaro was an important Harappan settlement.
Reason (R): Chanhudaro was larger than Mohenjodaro.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
Hint
Compare 7 and 125 hectares.
Answer
(c) A is true but R is false: Chanhudaro was under 7 hectares against Mohenjodaro's 125, but it mattered as a specialised craft centre.
Q6 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
Suppose a Harappan jar coated with thick black clay is found in Oman. What would it suggest, and why would a historian be cautious in interpreting it? (3 marks)
Hint
What did it carry?
Answer
It suggests contact and exchange: the coating stops liquids seeping through, so the jar probably carried something that the Harappans may have exchanged for Omani copper. A historian must be cautious because we do not know what the jar contained or who carried it; it could have reached Oman through intermediaries. So it shows contact, but not the exact goods or the form of trade.
Q7 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
Examine the different ways in which the Harappans moved goods and people, and explain why sealings were needed for such movement. (4 marks)
Hint
Land, river, coast, sea; then the knot of clay.
Answer
Over land, terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest carts carried goods and people. Riverine routes along the Indus and its tributaries and coastal routes were probably used, and contact with Oman, Bahrain and Mesopotamia was likely by sea (ships on seals; Meluhha called a land of seafarers). Because goods travelled long distances, bags were tied and sealed with clay pressed with a seal; an intact sealing showed the goods had not been tampered with and identified the sender.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1.How large was Chanhudaro compared with Mohenjodaro?Show answer
Less than 7 hectares against 125 hectares.
2.Which stone's red colour came from firing?Show answer
Carnelian.
3.Where have specialised drills been found?Show answer
Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholavira.
4.Name the four clues to a craft centre.Show answer
Raw material, tools, unfinished objects, rejects and waste.
5.Where did expeditions go for copper and for gold?Show answer
Khetri region of Rajasthan for copper; south India for gold.
6.What is Dilmun probably?Show answer
The island of Bahrain.

Harappan Craft Production and Trade: frequently asked questions

Which crafts were practised at Chanhudaro?

Bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making. The settlement was under 7 hectares but was devoted almost entirely to craft production.

How did archaeologists identify centres of craft production?

By looking for raw material, tools, unfinished objects, and rejects and waste. Waste is the best indicator because pieces are thrown away where cutting is done.

How did the Harappans get raw materials?

By setting up settlements near sources (Nageshwar, Balakot, Shortughai, Lothal), by sending expeditions to Khetri for copper and south India for gold, and through contact with Oman, Bahrain and Mesopotamia.

What was Meluhha?

A region named in Mesopotamian texts, possibly the Harappan region. The texts list its products as carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold and varieties of wood and call it a land of seafarers.