Political Theory: An Introduction, Class 11 Political Science

What Political Theory: An Introduction is about

Weightage: Political Theory carries 40 of the 80 theory marks in the school annual exam, shared among its chapters; project work carries the other 20 marks.Source: CBSE Political Science (028) syllabus 2026-27, Class XI course structure

Key concepts

What political theory is

NCERT section Introduction

• Humans are unique in two ways: they have reason and can reflect on their actions, and they can use language to share ideas about what is good and desirable. Political theory is rooted in these twin aspects.

Questions it analyses: the right way to organise society; the need for government and its best form; whether law restricts freedom; the duties of the state to citizens and of citizens to one another.

What it does:
1. Thinks systematically about values that inform political life: freedom, equality, justice.
2. Explains the meaning and significance of these concepts, clarifying definitions through major thinkers past and present.
3. Examines how far freedom or equality is actually present in institutions we use daily (schools, shops, buses, trains, offices).
4. At an advanced level, asks whether definitions are adequate and how institutions (government, bureaucracy) and policies should be modified to be more democratic.

Objective: to equip citizens to reason clearly about political questions and judge the events of their own times.

Worked example

State two ways in which political theory goes beyond merely defining concepts. (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. It examines how far values like freedom and equality are actually present in the institutions of everyday life such as schools, buses and offices.
2. At an advanced level, it asks whether existing definitions are adequate and how institutions and policies must change to become more democratic.

Answer: It tests concepts against real institutions and proposes how institutions should change.

Images of politics

NCERT section 1.1 What is Politics?

Conflicting images:

• Public service: how political leaders and office-holders often describe it.
• Manipulation and intrigue to pursue ambitions; 'what politicians do'.
• 'Scams': when people see defections, false promises, manipulation, ruthless pursuit of interests and crime.
• 'Playing politics' in everyday life: a cricketer manipulating to stay in the team, a student using a father's position, a colleague flattering the boss.
• Disillusioned, people say they are 'not interested in politics'; businessmen blame politics while funding parties; film stars complain but play the game well once they join.

The chapter's view: it is unfortunate that politics is equated with self-interest by any method. Politics is an important and integral part of any society. Mahatma Gandhi said politics envelops us like the coils of a snake, and there is no way out but to wrestle with it.

Worked example

Why does the chapter reject the view that politics is only 'dirty' and best avoided? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Equating politics with self-seeking manipulation ignores that every society needs political organisation and collective decision-making.
2. As Gandhi observed, politics surrounds us like the coils of a snake; we cannot escape it, so we must engage with it to make a better world.

Answer: Because politics is unavoidable and necessary; the right response is engagement, not withdrawal.

Politics as collective decision-making and negotiation

NCERT section 1.1 What is Politics?

• No society can exist without political organisation and collective decision-making; it must consider the multiple needs and interests of members.
• Institutions like the family, tribes and economic institutions help people meet needs and live together; governments play an important part, so how they are formed and work is a focus of politics.

But politics is more than government:

• Government decisions (economic, foreign and educational policy) affect our lives: violent conflicts close markets and schools, block hospitals, disrupt syllabi; good policies on literacy and jobs open opportunities.
• So people take an interest: form associations, campaign, negotiate, protest and demonstrate to change laws, debate representatives' actions, discuss corruption and whether reservations are just, and analyse why parties win.

Summary definition: politics arises from our different visions of what is just and desirable. It involves the multiple negotiations through which collective decisions are made, at two levels:
1. What governments do and how they relate to people's aspirations.
2. How people struggle and influence decision-making.

People engage in politics whenever they negotiate and take part in collective activities for social development and solving common problems.

Worked example

A student says, 'I am not interested in politics; it is only about elections and politicians.' Using the chapter's two levels of politics, show why the student is still affected by politics and takes part in it. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Politics arises from different visions of what is just and desirable, and includes all the negotiations through which collective decisions are made, not only what politicians do.
2. First level: what governments do affects the student directly, for example policies on education, jobs and literacy, or violence that closes schools and markets.
3. Second level: people influence decisions by forming associations, campaigning, protesting and debating issues such as corruption or reservations.
4. Even negotiating with classmates or neighbours to solve a common problem is political activity, so the student already takes part in politics, whether or not he calls it that.

Answer: Politics covers both government decisions that shape daily life and people's collective negotiations to influence them, so no one is outside it.

Ideas behind constitutions: the thinkers

NCERT section 1.2 What do we study in Political Theory?

Behind visible change lie values and principles that inspire people and guide policy: democracy, freedom, equality. Countries enshrine them in constitutions (American, Indian), built on ideas debated since Kautilya and Aristotle to Rousseau, Marx, Gandhi and Ambedkar.

Thinker	Idea in the chapter
Plato and Aristotle (5th century BC onwards)	Debated with students whether monarchy or democracy was better
Jean Jacques Rousseau	First argued for freedom as a fundamental right of humankind
Karl Marx	Equality is as crucial as freedom
Mahatma Gandhi	Meaning of genuine freedom, swaraj, in Hind Swaraj
Dr B. R. Ambedkar	Scheduled Castes should be treated as a minority with special protection

In the Indian Constitution: the Preamble enshrines freedom and equality; the Rights chapter abolishes untouchability; Gandhian principles appear in the Directive Principles.

What political theory does: deals with ideas shaping constitutions, governments and social life systematically; clarifies concepts (freedom, equality, justice, democracy, secularism); probes principles (rule of law, separation of powers, judicial review) by examining thinkers' arguments. Thinkers like Rousseau, Marx and Gandhi were not politicians, yet influenced generations of politicians. Theorists also reflect on current experience and point out future trends.

Worked example

Show with two examples how the ideas of political thinkers find a place in the Indian Constitution. (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Rousseau's and Marx's arguments for freedom and equality are reflected in the Preamble, which enshrines both values.
2. Gandhi's ideas appear in the Directive Principles, and Ambedkar's case for protecting Scheduled Castes is reflected in the abolition of untouchability in the Rights chapter.

Answer: Freedom and equality in the Preamble; Gandhian principles in Directive Principles; abolition of untouchability.

Why political theory remains relevant today

NCERT section 1.2 What do we study in Political Theory?

India is free and democratic, yet questions of freedom and equality keep arising, for three reasons:

1. Uneven implementation across spheres: equality may exist politically (equal rights) but not equally in economic or social spheres. People with equal political rights may face discrimination for caste or poverty; some are deprived of basic necessities; many cannot go to school. For them freedom is a distant dream.
2. New interpretations: like learning to interpret the rules of chess or cricket while playing, Fundamental Rights are reinterpreted for new circumstances. The courts read the right to life to include the right to livelihood; the right to information came through a new law. Rights expand through judicial interpretation and government policy.
3. New dimensions of and threats to freedom: global communications help activists protect tribal cultures and forests, but also help terrorists and criminals network. Growing internet commerce means personal data must be protected; netizens dislike government control but accept some regulation for security and privacy. Questions: may people send unsolicited e-mails, advertise in chat rooms; may governments read private e-mails to track terrorists; how much regulation, and by whom?

Worked example

'We already have freedom and democracy, so political theory is no longer relevant.' Refute this with three reasons from the chapter. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Freedom and equality are implemented unevenly: equal political rights coexist with social and economic discrimination based on caste or poverty.
2. Rights are constantly reinterpreted: the right to life now includes the right to livelihood, and a new law gave the right to information.
3. New technologies create new freedoms and new threats, such as online privacy and the question of how far governments may read private e-mails.
4. Political theory helps answer these questions about the meaning and limits of freedom, so it remains highly relevant.

Answer: Uneven equality, evolving interpretations and new technological threats keep political theory relevant.

Socrates and the method of reasoning

NCERT section 1.3 Putting Political Theory to Practice

• The textbook focuses on one aspect of political theory: the origins, meaning and significance of familiar political ideas: freedom, equality, citizenship, justice, development, nationalism, secularism.
• In debates we ask 'what does it mean?' and 'how does it matter?' Unlike mathematics, where a triangle has one definition, concepts like equality or freedom have many definitions, because they concern relationships among human beings, who hold opinions that must be understood and harmonised.

Socrates: called the 'wisest man' in Athens; he questioned popular beliefs about society, religion and politics, and was condemned to death by Athens' rulers. His student Plato wrote 'The Republic', using the character Socrates to examine 'what is justice?'

The dialogue with Cephalus:
1. Cephalus suggests justice is speaking the truth and paying debts.
2. Socrates gives a counter-example: should you return weapons a friend left with you if he asks for them when he is not in his right mind? So that definition fails.
3. The next view, 'help friends and harm enemies', is refined and then rejected: harming people makes them worse, and the just person, through justice, cannot make others unjust; so injuring anyone is never just.

The key point: Socrates uses reason to expose limitations and inconsistencies in a view until his adversaries admit their understanding is inadequate.

Worked example

How did Socrates show that 'speaking the truth and paying one's debts' is not a satisfactory definition of justice? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. He gave a counter-example: a friend in his right mind leaves weapons with you, then demands them back when he has lost his senses.
2. Returning them would 'pay the debt' but could cause harm, so the definition has exceptions and cannot be a correct definition of justice.

Answer: By a counter-example showing that repaying a debt can be unjust, exposing the definition's inadequacy through reason.

Doing political theory: the queue and equality

NCERT section 1.3 Putting Political Theory to Practice

The chapter shows how we already 'do' political theory by reflecting on everyday experience of equality:

1. Queue-jumping in shops, clinics or offices makes us feel cheated: we want equal opportunity for goods and services we pay for. So equality = equal opportunity for all.
2. Separate counters for the old and disabled seem justified: so equality allows special treatment in some cases.
3. Many poor people (day labourers cutting stones or carrying bricks) cannot afford shops or doctors at all: equality must involve fairness, so people are not exploited or disadvantaged by economic factors.
4. Children who must work, and girls pulled out of school to mind siblings, show that the constitutional right to primary education can remain formal; the government may need to do more.

Lesson: the meaning of equality depends on context; reflecting from ourselves to others (the poor, the disadvantaged, senior citizens) reveals many layers of meaning. Equal opportunity is not enough when basic needs are unmet: proactive measures such as fair distribution of resources (jobs, decent wages, subsidised hospitals) and an agency responsible for fairness are needed.

What theorists do: clarify concepts by looking at ordinary language use, debate meanings systematically, and address practical questions (When is equal opportunity enough? When is special treatment needed, and for how long? Should poor children get midday meals?). These answers guide public policy on education and employment.

Worked example

Using the example of a queue, explain why there are many definitions of equality. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. When someone jumps the queue we feel cheated, which shows equality means equal opportunity.
2. Separate counters for the elderly and disabled seem fair, so equality can require special treatment.
3. Poor labourers who cannot afford the goods at all show that equality needs fairness in economic resources, not just equal access.
4. Since what equality demands changes with context, from equal opportunity to special provisions to redistribution, there are many definitions.

Answer: Because equality's meaning depends on context: equal opportunity, special treatment and fair distribution each apply in different situations.

Why should we study political theory?

NCERT section 1.4 Why Should We Study Political Theory?

Isn't political theory only for politicians, bureaucrats, teachers, lawyers, judges, activists and journalists? The chapter gives four reasons it matters to students:

1. Relevant to future professions: we may join any of these groups; like basic mathematics, it is useful for life in general even if we do not become specialists.
2. Responsible citizenship: we will vote and decide issues; in the information society we must be reasonable and informed to take part in gram sabhas, websites and polls; arbitrary preferences are ineffective. Citizens are like a concert audience: not the performers, but they set the agenda, appreciate and make requests; musicians play better for a knowledgeable audience, and a vigilant citizenry makes politicians more public-spirited.
3. Examining our prejudices: we meet discrimination in families, schools, colleges and malls, and hold prejudices about caste, religion, gender or class. The oppressed may feel violent revolution is justified if redress is delayed; the privileged may deny oppression (even towards their domestic workers). Political theory makes us examine our ideas and feelings and become moderate.
4. Reasoned debate: we have opinions on right and wrong but do not know if they are reasonable; theory exposes us to systematic thinking so we can argue in an informed way for common interests: valuable skills in the global information order.

Worked example

Explain how the study of political theory can help (a) a future journalist and (b) an ordinary voter who never takes up a political career. Give two ways for each. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. (a) Journalist: journalism is among the professions for which political theory is directly relevant; it trains systematic thinking about concepts such as freedom, equality and justice.
2. (a) It helps the journalist argue in an informed, reasoned way and examine her own prejudices about caste, religion, gender or class before reporting.
3. (b) Voter: an informed, reasonable citizen can take part effectively in gram sabhas, polls and online debate, where arbitrary preferences carry little weight.
4. (b) Like a knowledgeable concert audience, vigilant voters make politicians more public-spirited.

Answer: For the journalist: professional relevance, reasoned argument and self-examination; for the voter: informed participation and vigilance that improves politics.

Political Theory: An Introduction in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• Socrates' Method of Reasoning, the Queue and the Meaning of Equality, and Why We Study Political Theory
• What Is Politics? What Political Theory Studies and Why It Remains Relevant

Political Theory: An Introduction: key facts

Roots of political theory

Reason and reflection + language and communication

Objective: train citizens to think rationally about political questions.

Politics: two levels

What governments do and how they relate to aspirations + how people struggle to influence decisions

Arises from different visions of what is just; involves negotiation and collective decisions.

Thinkers and ideas

Plato and Aristotle	monarchy vs democracy
Rousseau	freedom
Marx	equality
Gandhi	swaraj, Hind Swaraj
Ambedkar	SCs as minority

Reflected in Preamble, abolition of untouchability, Directive Principles.

Why still relevant

Uneven spheres (political vs social and economic) + new interpretations (life → livelihood; RTI) + new threats (internet, privacy)

Rights evolve like rules of a game.

Socratic method

1. 1.Proposed definition
2. 2.counter-example
3. 3.inconsistency exposed
4. 4.refined view

Plato's Republic: Socrates and Cephalus on justice.

Why study political theory

Careers + citizenship (vigilant audience) + examining prejudices + reasoned debate

Like basic arithmetic: useful to all.

How the school exam asks Political Theory: An Introduction

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember Political Theory: An Introduction

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• Two roots: R and L

  Reason (reflect) and Language (communicate).

  Use it when: Roots of political theory.

• Thinkers in one line

  'Plato-Aristotle pick a ruler, Rousseau frees, Marx equalises, Gandhi self-rules, Ambedkar protects.'

  Use it when: Matching thinkers to ideas.

• Still relevant: U-N-T

  Uneven spheres, New interpretations, Technology threats.

  Use it when: Relevance of political theory.

• Why study: C-C-P-D

  Careers, Citizenship, Prejudices, Debate.

  Use it when: Uses of political theory.

• Socratic steps: D-C-I

  Definition, Counter-example, Inconsistency.

  Use it when: Method of reasoning.

Political Theory: An Introduction: exam-level solved questions

Ordered from exam level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section E style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In a school exam set on the board pattern this is a 4-mark question split into 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in Political Theory: An Introduction

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Defining politics as only what politicians or governments do

  Everyday usage links politics to politicians.

  Wrong working

  Politics means the activities of political parties and leaders.

  Right working

  Politics also includes how people negotiate, campaign and struggle to influence collective decisions.

  ✓Do this: Two levels: government and people.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Writing that political theory predicts elections

  Confusing theory with political analysis or punditry.

  Wrong working

  Political theory forecasts how parties will perform.

  Right working

  It clarifies concepts and principles and examines whether institutions realise them.

  ✓Do this: Theory = ideas and values.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Mixing up the thinkers

  Several names appear together.

  Wrong working

  Marx first argued for freedom; Rousseau stressed equality.

  Right working

  Rousseau: freedom as fundamental right; Marx: equality as crucial as freedom.

  ✓Do this: R for Rousseau and Right to freedom.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Retelling the Socrates dialogue without its point

  The story is memorable, the method less so.

  Wrong working

  Socrates and Cephalus talked about weapons and horses.

  Right working

  Socrates used reason and counter-examples to expose inconsistencies in definitions of justice.

  ✓Do this: Always state the method.

  Usually costs: Up to 2 marks in a 4-mark answer.

• ✗Mistake: Treating equality as one fixed definition

  Students want a single textbook definition.

  Wrong working

  Equality means treating everyone the same in all cases.

  Right working

  Its meaning depends on context: equal opportunity, special treatment, fair distribution.

  ✓Do this: Use the queue example's layers.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Listing fewer than four reasons to study political theory

  Students merge citizenship and debate skills.

  Wrong working

  It helps us become good citizens and politicians.

  Right working

  Careers, citizenship, examining prejudices, rational debate.

  ✓Do this: Four separate reasons.

  Usually costs: Up to 2 marks.

NCERT exercise guide: Political Theory: An Introduction

What each exercise in the NCERT chapter tests, how to approach it, and a question of the same kind solved step by step. Questions here are written in our own words.

Practice questions on Political Theory: An Introduction

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · MCQExam level

   Who first argued in modern times that freedom is a fundamental right of humankind?
   (a) Karl Marx
   (b) Jean Jacques Rousseau
   (c) Aristotle
   (d) Kautilya

   Hint

   Marx stressed equality.

   Answer

   (b) Rousseau.

2. Q2 · 1 mark · MCQExam level

   Gandhi discussed the meaning of genuine freedom, or swaraj, in:
   (a) The Republic
   (b) Hind Swaraj
   (c) Annihilation of Caste
   (d) Discovery of India

   Hint

   The title contains the word.

   Answer

   (b) Hind Swaraj.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · MCQHarder exam level

   Consider the statements:
   1. Political theory examines how far freedom and equality exist in everyday institutions.
   2. Rights in the Indian Constitution have never been reinterpreted since 1950.
   3. The courts have read the right to livelihood into the right to life.
   Which are correct?
   (a) 1 and 2
   (b) 1 and 3
   (c) 2 and 3
   (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Hint

   Rights evolve like rules of a game.

   Answer

   (b) 1 and 3.

4. Q4 · 1 mark · MCQHarder exam level

   Match:
   A. Karl Marx 1. Scheduled Castes as a minority needing protection
   B. Dr B. R. Ambedkar 2. Equality as crucial as freedom
   C. Socrates 3. Questioned popular beliefs and was condemned to death
   D. Plato and Aristotle 4. Debated monarchy versus democracy
   (a) A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
   (b) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
   (c) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
   (d) A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4

   Hint

   Equality, minority, questioning, forms of government.

   Answer

   (a).

5. Q5 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder exam level

   Assertion (A): An educated and vigilant citizenry makes politicians more public-spirited.
   Reason (R): Citizens are the main performers in politics who make all decisions themselves.
   Choose the correct option as in the standard A-R format.

   Hint

   The concert audience.

   Answer

   (c) A is true but R is false: citizens are like the audience, not the main performers.

6. Q6 · 1 mark · MCQExam level

   Which of these is an example of political activity as defined in the chapter?
   (a) Reading a novel alone
   (b) Residents negotiating with each other and campaigning to get a park cleaned
   (c) Practising the piano
   (d) Solving a crossword

   Hint

   Negotiation and collective activity.

   Answer

   (b).

7. Q7 · 2 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   Why does the chapter compare interpreting rights to learning the rules of chess or cricket? (2 marks)

   Hint

   Meanings grow with play.

   Answer

   While playing a game we learn how to interpret its rules and discover broader meanings of the game. Similarly, constitutional rights are reinterpreted in new circumstances, e.g. the right to life now includes the right to livelihood, so their meaning keeps expanding.

8. Q8 · 2 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   Why may the right to primary education remain only 'formal' for many children, and what does this teach about equality? (2 marks)

   Hint

   Working children, girls minding siblings.

   Answer

   Many children must work to feed themselves, and girls in poor homes are kept back to look after siblings, so the guaranteed right is not actually used. Equality needs proactive measures (fair distribution, support like midday meals), not just formal rights.

9. Q9 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   Socrates, called the wisest man in Athens, was condemned to death for questioning popular beliefs. What does his fate show about the power of a good argument, and why does the chapter still ask us to argue with reasons? (4 marks)

   Hint

   Persuasion versus power; reasons for the common interest.

   Answer

   His fate shows that a convincing argument does not automatically compel others: those who hold power or popular beliefs may refuse to listen, and may even punish the questioner. Yet his reasoning did change minds among those willing to think, as when Cephalus and his friends had to admit that their definition of justice was inadequate. The chapter asks us to support opinions with reasons because arbitrary preferences carry little weight in public debate, while informed, systematic argument can persuade others, expose inconsistencies and help build agreement on common interests.

10. Q10 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

    Explain how political theorists help in framing public policy, using the example of equality in education. (4 marks)

    Hint

    Practical questions.

    Answer

    Theorists clarify what equality means in ordinary use and examine its layers systematically. They ask practical questions: when is equal opportunity enough; when is special treatment justified and for how long; should poor children receive midday meals to stay in school? Their answers guide policies on education and employment, such as support measures that turn the formal right to education into a real one.

11. Q11 · 6 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

    'Politics is an integral part of any society.' Explain why politics is unavoidable, with examples from the chapter. (6 marks)

    Hint

    Needs, institutions, government effects, citizen action.

    Answer

    No society can survive without political organisation and collective decision-making, because it must reconcile members' many needs and interests. Institutions like families, tribes, economic bodies and governments help people live together. Government policies on the economy, education and foreign affairs shape our lives: violence can shut markets, schools and hospitals, while literacy and job policies create opportunity. So citizens form associations, campaign, protest and debate issues like corruption and reservations. Politics arises from different visions of what is just and involves negotiations at the level of government and of people. Gandhi's snake metaphor sums it up: we cannot escape politics, so we must engage with it.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.What are the twin aspects of the human self in which political theory is rooted?Show answer

   Reason (with reflection on actions) and the capacity for language and communication.

2. 2.What is the objective of political theory according to the chapter?Show answer

   To train citizens to think rationally about political questions and assess political events.

3. 3.Who said politics envelops us like the coils of a snake?Show answer

   Mahatma Gandhi.

4. 4.Which of Gandhi's books discusses swaraj?Show answer

   Hind Swaraj.

5. 5.Who was described as the wisest man in Athens?Show answer

   Socrates.

6. 6.With whom does the dialogue in The Republic open?Show answer

   Socrates and Cephalus.

7. 7.Who are netizens?Show answer

   Citizens of the internet.

8. 8.Which right has been read into the right to life by courts?Show answer

   The right to livelihood.

9. 9.What analogy does the chapter use for citizens' role in politics?Show answer

   The audience at a music concert.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Political theory is rooted in reason and language; asks how society should be organised and what we owe each other.
• ☐It clarifies freedom, equality, justice; tests them against everyday institutions; suggests democratic reforms.
• ☐Images of politics: public service versus manipulation and 'scams'; Gandhi: politics like a snake's coils.
• ☐Politics: negotiations for collective decisions, by governments and by people.
• ☐Thinkers: Plato and Aristotle, Rousseau (freedom), Marx (equality), Gandhi (swaraj), Ambedkar (SCs as minority).
• ☐Constitution reflects them: Preamble, abolition of untouchability, Directive Principles.
• ☐Relevance: uneven spheres of equality, reinterpretation of rights (livelihood, RTI), internet freedoms and threats.
• ☐Concepts have many definitions because they concern human relationships and opinions.
• ☐Socrates (Republic) uses reason and counter-examples to show definitions of justice are inadequate.
• ☐Queue example: equal opportunity, special treatment, fair distribution.
• ☐Study it for careers, citizenship (concert audience), examining prejudices and rational debate.

Political Theory: An Introduction: frequently asked questions