Election and Representation, Class 11 Political Science

What Election and Representation is about

Weightage: Indian Constitution at Work carries 40 of the 80 theory marks in the school annual exam, shared among its chapters; project work carries the other 20 marks.Source: CBSE Political Science (028) syllabus 2026-27, Class XI course structure

Key concepts

Elections, democracy and the constitution

NCERT section Elections and Democracy

Can there be democracy without elections? In a direct democracy, citizens take part in day-to-day decisions (ancient Greek city-states; today local bodies, especially gram sabhas, come closest). But decisions involving lakhs and crores of people cannot be taken this way, so rule by the people usually means rule by representatives. Citizens take part indirectly, which makes the method of electing representatives very important.

Can there be elections without democracy? Yes: many non-democratic rulers hold elections in ways that do not threaten their rule, to appear democratic.

Role of the constitution: a democratic constitution lays down basic rules; laws passed by legislatures work out details. The basic rules answer:
1. Who is eligible to vote?
2. Who is eligible to contest?
3. Who supervises elections?
4. How do voters choose their representatives?
5. How are votes counted and representatives elected?

The first three ensure elections are free and fair; the last two ensure fair representation.

Worked example

Why are the basic rules of elections written into the constitution instead of being left to the government of the day? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Like the rules and umpire of a game, election rules and machinery must be agreed before the contest begins, because they shape the outcome.
2. If the ruling party could change them, it could tilt elections in its favour; writing them into the constitution keeps them above day-to-day politics.

Answer: Because rules decided by the players themselves could be manipulated; constitutional rules ensure a fair contest.

First Past the Post (FPTP) and the 1984 example

NCERT section First Past the Post System

How FPTP works in India:

• The country is divided into 543 constituencies.
• Each constituency elects one representative.
• The candidate with more votes than any other candidate wins; he or she need not secure a majority.
• It is called First Past the Post (whoever crosses the winning post first wins) or the Plurality System. This is the method the Constitution prescribes for Lok Sabha and Assembly elections.

The 1984 Lok Sabha election: the Congress won 415 of 543 seats (about 76 per cent) with only 48 per cent of the votes; the BJP got 7.4 per cent of votes but only 2 seats. Other parties: Janata 6.7 per cent and 10 seats; CPI(M) 5.7 per cent and 22 seats; Telugu Desam 4.1 per cent and 30 seats.

Why seats and votes diverge: with several candidates, winners often get well under 50 per cent; votes for losing candidates go 'waste'. In theory a party with only 25 per cent of votes in every constituency, if others got even less, could win every seat.

Note how Telugu Desam won more seats (30) with fewer votes (4.1 per cent) than the BJP (7.4 per cent, 2 seats): concentrated support wins seats under FPTP; scattered support does not.

Worked example

In 1984, Telugu Desam won 30 seats with 4.1 per cent of votes while the BJP won 2 seats with 7.4 per cent. Explain this using the features of FPTP. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Under FPTP each constituency elects one member: whoever gets the most votes there.
2. Telugu Desam's votes were concentrated in one State, so it came first in many constituencies there.
3. The BJP's votes were spread across many constituencies, where it usually came second or lower, so most of its votes won no seats ('wasted' votes).
4. Hence seats depend on where votes are won, not on the national vote share.

Answer: Concentrated support converts into seats under FPTP; widely scattered support does not.

Proportional Representation (PR)

NCERT section Proportional Representation

PR: each party gets the same proportion of seats as its proportion of votes.

Two variations:

• The whole country is one constituency (Israel, the Netherlands): seats are allotted by each party's national vote share.
• The country is divided into multi-member constituencies (Argentina, Portugal): each party prepares a list for each constituency.
• In both, voters choose a party, not a candidate, and representatives from one constituency may belong to different parties.

Israel (Knesset): elections every four years; parties declare candidate lists; seats in proportion to votes; a party needs at least 3.25 per cent of votes to win seats. Small parties get representation, often leading to multi-party coalitions. In 2015, Likud got 23.40 per cent of votes and 30 of 120 seats; parties below the threshold ('other parties', 4.51 per cent) got none.

FPTP versus PR (chapter's comparison):

• Constituencies: small single-member units versus large areas or the whole country.
• Representatives per constituency: one versus more than one.
• Vote for: a candidate versus a party.
• Seats: a party may get more (or fewer) seats than its vote share versus seats in proportion to votes.
• Winner: need not get a majority versus seats by share.
• Examples: UK, India versus Israel, Netherlands.

In India: PR is used on a limited scale for indirect elections: a complex variant for the President, Vice President, Rajya Sabha and Vidhan Parishads.

Worked example

Give three differences between the FPTP and PR systems. (3 marks, assess as part of a 4-mark answer)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. FPTP: country divided into small single-member constituencies; PR: large multi-member constituencies or the whole country as one.
2. FPTP: voters vote for a candidate; PR: voters vote for a party.
3. FPTP: a party may get more or fewer seats than its vote share and the winner need not have a majority; PR: seats are in proportion to votes.

Answer: Constituency size, object of the vote, and the link between votes and seats.

Single transferable vote in Rajya Sabha elections

NCERT section How does PR work in Rajya Sabha elections

The Rajya Sabha uses a third variant of PR, the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system.

• Each State has a quota of Rajya Sabha seats; members are elected by the State Legislative Assembly: the voters are the MLAs.
• Each voter ranks candidates in order of preference.
• A candidate must reach a quota:

Quota = (total votes polled ÷ (number of candidates to be elected + 1)) + 1

• Example: 200 MLAs in Rajasthan electing 4 members: 200 ÷ (4 + 1) = 40; 40 + 1 = 41 votes.
• Counting: first-preference votes are counted. If not enough candidates reach the quota, the candidate with the fewest first preferences is eliminated, and his or her ballots are transferred to the second preferences marked on them. This continues until the required number are elected.

Worked example

A State Assembly has 180 MLAs, all of whom vote, to elect 5 Rajya Sabha members. What quota must a candidate reach? What happens if, after counting first preferences, only 3 candidates reach it? (3 marks, assess as part of a 4-mark answer)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Quota = 180 ÷ (5 + 1) + 1 = 30 + 1 = 31 votes.
2. If only 3 reach 31 votes, the candidate with the fewest first-preference votes is eliminated.
3. That candidate's ballots are transferred to the second preferences on them, and counting continues until 5 candidates reach the quota.

Answer: 31 votes; eliminate the lowest and transfer ballots by next preference until all 5 seats are filled.

Why India adopted FPTP

NCERT section Why did India adopt the FPTP system?

Reasons given in the chapter:
1. Simplicity: the system is easy to understand even for voters with little knowledge of politics; PR (like STV) works in small countries but would be difficult in a subcontinent.
2. Clear choice: voters simply endorse a candidate or party, and can weigh party, candidate or both.
3. Local accountability: voters choose a specific candidate, know who their representative is and can hold him or her accountable; under PR party lists, no single representative answers for a locality.
4. Stable government: a parliamentary system needs the executive to have a majority in the legislature. PR may not give a clear majority; FPTP usually gives the largest party or coalition bonus seats, enabling stable government.
5. Social cohesion: FPTP encourages voters from different social groups to come together to win a seat; PR might encourage each community to form its own nationwide party.

Experience: FPTP has proved simple and familiar, helped larger parties win clear majorities, and discouraged parties that draw votes from only one caste or community. Normally FPTP produces a two-party system; India's experience differs: early one-party dominance alongside smaller parties, multi-party coalitions after 1989, and two-party competition in many States. Coalitions have let new and smaller parties enter competition despite FPTP.

Worked example

Give four reasons why the makers of the Constitution chose the FPTP system for India. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. It is simple and easy for ordinary voters in a huge, diverse country to understand.
2. Voters elect a specific candidate who is accountable to the constituency.
3. It tends to give the largest party or coalition a clear majority, which a parliamentary system needs for stable government.
4. It encourages different social groups in a locality to come together, instead of each community forming its own party as PR might encourage.

Answer: Simplicity, local accountability, stable majorities and social cohesion.

Reservation of constituencies

NCERT section Reservation of Constituencies

The problem: under FPTP, dominant groups and castes could win everywhere, leaving historically oppressed groups unrepresented.

Separate electorates rejected: the British had introduced separate electorates, where only voters of a community could vote for that community's representative. Many Constituent Assembly members feared this would not suit India. Tajamul Husain (26 May 1949) called separate electorates 'a curse to India'. So the Assembly adopted reserved constituencies: all voters in the constituency vote, but candidates must belong to the community for which the seat is reserved.

Provisions:

• Seats reserved in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, in proportion to their share of population.
• Initially for 10 years, extended by amendments up to 2030; Parliament can extend it further.
• Of 543 Lok Sabha seats, 84 for SCs and 47 for STs (as on 26 January 2019).
• The Adivasi leader Jaipal Singh reminded the Assembly that under the 1935 Act there had been only 24 Adivasi MLAs out of 1,585, and none at the Centre; Adivasis wanted reservation, not separate electorates.

Delimitation Commission: appointed by the President, working with the Election Commission, it draws constituency boundaries. It fixes each State's quota of reserved seats by SC/ST proportion, then reserves constituencies with the highest proportion of STs; for SCs it picks constituencies with a high SC share but spreads them across regions, since SCs are spread fairly evenly. Reserved constituencies can rotate with each delimitation.

Women: reservation for women already exists in rural and urban local bodies; for the Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabhas, one-third reservation has been provided through the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (Women's Reservation Act, 2023).

Worked example

In a constituency, 30 per cent of voters belong to the Scheduled Castes. If the seat is reserved for SCs, who may vote and who may contest? How would a separate electorate differ, and why did the Constituent Assembly prefer reservation? (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Reserved constituency: all voters of the constituency, SC or not, vote; only SC candidates may contest.
2. Separate electorate: only SC voters would elect the SC representative, so voters would be divided by community.
3. The British had introduced separate electorates; members such as Tajamul Husain called them a curse that had done great harm, and Adivasi spokesman Jaipal Singh asked for reserved seats so that Adivasis could mix with others.
4. Reservation secures representation for disadvantaged groups while every candidate must win the votes of the whole constituency, keeping one common electorate.

Answer: Everyone votes but only SC candidates stand; a separate electorate would restrict the voters instead. Reservation was preferred because it gives representation without dividing the electorate.

Universal adult franchise and the right to contest

NCERT section Free and Fair Elections (Universal franchise and right to contest)

The true test of an election system is its ability to ensure a free and fair process.

Universal adult franchise: all adult citizens are eligible to vote. In many countries people (especially women) won this right only after long struggles; India guaranteed it from the start.

• Till 1989, an adult meant a citizen above 21; a 1989 amendment reduced the voting age to 18.
• It reflects equality and non-discrimination. Some thought (and think) votes should require education, but the framers firmly believed in the worth of all adult citizens as equals in deciding what is good for society.

Right to contest: all citizens may stand for election, subject to minimum ages: 25 years for the Lok Sabha or an Assembly. A person imprisoned for two or more years for an offence is disqualified. There are no restrictions of income, education, class or gender.

Muslim representation (Check your progress): Muslims are about 14.2 per cent of the population but usually less than 6 per cent of Lok Sabha MPs. The chapter asks students to weigh three responses: switch to PR (Hilal), reserve seats for Muslims (Arif), or a quota for Muslim women (Saba).

Worked example

What are the conditions for voting and for contesting Lok Sabha elections in India? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Voting: every citizen aged 18 or above (reduced from 21 by a 1989 amendment), without other qualifications.
2. Contesting: a citizen at least 25 years old, not disqualified (e.g. by imprisonment of two or more years); no income, education, class or gender restrictions.

Answer: Vote at 18; contest at 25, subject to legal disqualifications only.

The independent Election Commission

NCERT section Independent Election Commission

Article 324 provides for an independent Election Commission for the 'superintendence, direction and control' of electoral rolls and the conduct of elections to Parliament, State legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice President. The Supreme Court agrees these words give it a decisive role in virtually everything to do with elections.

• A Chief Electoral Officer in each State assists it.
• It does not conduct local body elections; State Election Commissioners do.

Composition: single-member till 1989; two more Commissioners were appointed just before the 1989 elections, then removed; since 1993 it has been multi-member. After disputes between the CEC and others (settled by the Supreme Court), there is consensus that a multi-member body shares power and gives greater accountability. The CEC presides but has no more power than the other Commissioners; they decide collectively.

Appointment and tenure: appointed by the President on the advice of the Council of Ministers, so a ruling party could appoint a partisan person; many suggest consulting the Leader of the Opposition and the Chief Justice of India. (A 2023 Act of Parliament has since provided for a selection committee, chaired by the Prime Minister and including the Leader of the Opposition, to recommend names to the President; answer textbook questions from the chapter's account.) Term: six years or until age 65, whichever is earlier.

Removal: the CEC can be removed before the term ends by the President only if both Houses recommend it by a special majority (two-thirds of those present and voting and a majority of total membership), so a ruling party cannot remove an unhelpful CEC. Election Commissioners can be removed by the President, but under Article 324(5) only on the recommendation of the CEC.

Functions:

• Supervises an up-to-date, error-free voters' list.
• Decides the timing and schedule of elections (notification, nominations, scrutiny, withdrawal, polling, counting, results).
• Ensures a free and fair poll: can postpone or cancel elections where the atmosphere is vitiated, enforces the model code of conduct, orders re-polls and recounts.
• Recognises parties and allots symbols.
• Has little staff of its own, but during elections has full control over officers on election duty: it can transfer them, stop transfers and act against partisan conduct.

Record: it has become more assertive over the last 25 years without new powers, by using its existing powers effectively. It held elections in militancy-affected areas (Assam, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir), postponed polling mid-way in 1991 after Rajiv Gandhi's assassination, and in 2002 postponed the Gujarat Assembly elections after violence; the Supreme Court upheld this. Seventeen Lok Sabha elections have been held since 1951-52.

Worked example

Why can the Chief Election Commissioner be removed only by a special majority of both Houses? What is a special majority? (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. The CEC must be independent of the ruling party to conduct free and fair elections.
2. If the government could remove the CEC easily, it could remove one who refused to favour it.
3. So removal needs a recommendation from both Houses of Parliament with a special majority, which usually requires support beyond the ruling party.
4. Special majority: two-thirds of members present and voting, and a majority of the total membership of the House.

Answer: To protect the CEC's independence; special majority means two-thirds present and voting plus a majority of total membership.

Electoral reforms and the record of India's elections

NCERT section Electoral Reforms; Conclusion

No system is perfect. After decades of experience, the Election Commission, parties, independent groups and scholars have proposed reforms, including:

• Change from FPTP to some form of PR so parties get seats roughly in proportion to votes.
• A provision so that at least one-third women are elected to Parliament and Assemblies.
• Stricter control of money in elections; election expenses paid by government from a special fund.
• Barring candidates with criminal cases from contesting, even if an appeal is pending.
• A complete ban on caste and religious appeals in campaigns.
• A law to make political parties function transparently and democratically.

There is no consensus, and laws have limits: free and fair elections need candidates and parties to accept the spirit of democratic competition, vigilant citizens, and active watchdog institutions and voluntary organisations.

Success of India's election system (conclusion):
1. Voters can choose freely and change governments peacefully.
2. Voters take keen interest; candidates and parties are increasing.
3. The system is inclusive: representatives come from more social sections, though women's numbers remain low.
4. Malpractices and rigging rarely change outcomes.
5. Elections are part of democratic life: no one imagines a government ignoring a verdict or forming without elections.

The chapter ends with the National Voters' Day pledge to vote in every election fearlessly and without inducement.

Worked example

Suggest four electoral reforms proposed in the chapter and note one limitation of legal reform. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Shift to some form of proportional representation.
2. Reserve or ensure one-third representation of women in Parliament and Assemblies.
3. Control money power, with state funding of election expenses.
4. Bar candidates facing criminal cases; limitation: laws alone cannot ensure fair elections without parties and candidates respecting the spirit of democratic competition and vigilant citizens.

Answer: PR, women's representation, money control and decriminalisation; but reform also needs democratic conduct and public vigilance.

Election and Representation in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• First Past the Post, Proportional Representation and the Single Transferable Vote
• Reserved Constituencies, Universal Franchise, the Election Commission and Electoral Reforms

Election and Representation: key facts

FPTP rule

1. 1.One constituency
2. 2.one member
3. 3.candidate with the most votes wins (majority not required)

Also called the plurality system; 543 Lok Sabha constituencies.

STV quota (Rajya Sabha)

Quota = [total votes polled ÷ (seats to be filled + 1)] + 1

Rajasthan example: 200 ÷ (4 + 1) + 1 = 41.

1984 Lok Sabha

1. 1.Congress 48% votes
2. 2.415/543 seats (over 80%); BJP 7.4%
3. 3.2 seats; Telugu Desam 4.1%
4. 4.30 seats

Shows the gap between votes and seats under FPTP.

Israel PR threshold

Minimum 3.25% of votes to get seats in the Knesset

Elections every four years; party lists.

Reserved seats

Lok Sabha: 84 SC + 47 ST of 543 (as on 26 Jan 2019); reservation extended up to 2030

Women: Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, 2023.

Ages

Vote: 18 (21 till 1989); contest Lok Sabha or Assembly: 25

Imprisonment of two or more years disqualifies.

Election Commission

Article	324
Members	CEC + 2 ECs (multi-member since 1993)
Term	6 years or age 65
CEC removal	special majority of both Houses

Special majority = 2/3 present and voting + majority of total membership.

How the school exam asks Election and Representation

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember Election and Representation

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• Five election questions: V-C-S-C-C

  Vote, Contest, Supervise (free and fair) | Choose, Count (fair representation).

  Use it when: Role of the constitution in elections.

• Why FPTP: S-A-S-S

  Simple, Accountable, Stable, Social cohesion.

  Use it when: Reasons for adopting FPTP.

• STV quota

  'Divide by seats plus one, then add one.'

  Use it when: Rajya Sabha calculations.

• EC numbers 324-6-65-93

  Article 324; 6 years; age 65; multi-member since 1993.

  Use it when: Election Commission MCQs.

• Reserved seats 84-47

  SC 84, ST 47 of 543; till 2030.

  Use it when: Reservation questions.

Election and Representation: exam-level solved questions

Ordered from exam level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section E style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In a school exam set on the board pattern this is a 4-mark question split into 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in Election and Representation

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Saying an FPTP winner must get a majority

  'Winning' is equated with 'more than half'.

  Wrong working

  The candidate who gets over 50 per cent wins.

  Right working

  The candidate with more votes than any other wins, even with well under 50 per cent.

  ✓Do this: Plurality, not majority.

  Usually costs: 1 mark in MCQs.

• ✗Mistake: Getting the STV quota formula wrong

  Students divide by seats instead of seats + 1.

  Wrong working

  200 MLAs, 4 seats: quota = 200/4 + 1 = 51.

  Right working

  Quota = 200 ÷ (4 + 1) + 1 = 41.

  ✓Do this: Always add 1 to the seats before dividing, then add 1.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Confusing reserved constituencies with separate electorates

  Both concern representation of groups.

  Wrong working

  In a reserved constituency only SC voters vote.

  Right working

  All voters vote; only candidates must belong to the reserved group.

  ✓Do this: Reserved = candidate restriction; separate electorate = voter restriction.

  Usually costs: 2 marks in a 4-mark answer.

• ✗Mistake: Saying the EC conducts local body elections

  All elections are assumed to be the EC's.

  Wrong working

  The Election Commission supervises Panchayat elections.

  Right working

  State Election Commissioners conduct local body elections.

  ✓Do this: EC: Parliament, Assemblies, President, Vice President.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Overstating the CEC's powers

  'Chief' suggests superior authority.

  Wrong working

  The CEC can overrule the other Commissioners.

  Right working

  The CEC presides but all three have equal powers and decide collectively.

  ✓Do this: Presides, not commands.

  Usually costs: 1 mark in statement MCQs.

• ✗Mistake: Writing that the EC's powers were increased by law

  Its assertiveness is assumed to come from new powers.

  Wrong working

  Amendments gave the EC new powers, making it assertive.

  Right working

  It became assertive by using the powers it always had more effectively.

  ✓Do this: Same powers, better use.

  Usually costs: 1 mark in A-R items.

NCERT exercise guide: Election and Representation

What each exercise in the NCERT chapter tests, how to approach it, and a question of the same kind solved step by step. Questions here are written in our own words.

Practice questions on Election and Representation

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · MCQExam level

   Elections to municipal corporations and panchayats are conducted by:
   (a) the Election Commission of India
   (b) State Election Commissioners
   (c) the Delimitation Commission
   (d) the Chief Electoral Officer of the State

   Hint

   The ECI handles Parliament, State legislatures, President and Vice President.

   Answer

   (b).

2. Q2 · 1 mark · MCQHarder exam level

   Who vote in the election of a State's members of the Rajya Sabha?
   (a) All adult citizens of the State
   (b) The members of the State Legislative Assembly
   (c) The State's members of the Lok Sabha
   (d) The members of the State Legislative Council

   Hint

   Think of the Rajasthan example in the chapter.

   Answer

   (b) The MLAs, who rank candidates by preference.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · MCQExam level

   In 1984, the Congress won about what share of Lok Sabha seats with 48 per cent of votes?
   (a) About 48 per cent
   (b) About 60 per cent
   (c) More than 80 per cent
   (d) About 95 per cent

   Hint

   415 of 543.

   Answer

   (c) More than 80 per cent (415 of 543).

4. Q4 · 1 mark · MCQHarder exam level

   Consider the statements:
   1. The Chief Election Commissioner has more powers than the other Election Commissioners.
   2. The Election Commission has been multi-member since 1993.
   3. Election Commissioners serve for six years or until 65, whichever is earlier.
   Which are correct?
   (a) 1 and 2
   (b) 2 and 3
   (c) 1 and 3
   (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Hint

   The CEC presides but decisions are collective.

   Answer

   (b) 2 and 3.

5. Q5 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder exam level

   Assertion (A): Reserved constituencies for Scheduled Castes are spread across different regions of a State.
   Reason (R): The Scheduled Caste population is generally spread fairly evenly across the country.
   Choose the correct option as in the standard A-R format.

   Hint

   Delimitation practice.

   Answer

   (a) Both true; R explains A.

6. Q6 · 1 mark · MCQHarder exam level

   A State Assembly of 140 MLAs (all voting) elects 3 Rajya Sabha members. What is the quota?
   (a) 35
   (b) 36
   (c) 47
   (d) 71

   Hint

   140 ÷ (3 + 1) + 1.

   Answer

   (b) 36.

7. Q7 · 2 marks · Short answerExam level

   What is universal adult franchise? Why did the framers adopt it without educational qualification? (2 marks)

   Hint

   Equality of citizens.

   Answer

   The right of every adult citizen (now 18 and above) to vote. The framers believed firmly in the ability and worth of all adult citizens as equals in deciding what is good for society, consistent with equality and non-discrimination.

8. Q8 · 6 marks · Long answerExam level

   Explain the functions of the Election Commission of India. (6 marks)

   Hint

   Rolls, schedule, fair poll, parties, control of officers.

   Answer

   It supervises preparation of an up-to-date, error-free voters' list; decides timing and the full election schedule; ensures a free and fair poll, with power to postpone or cancel elections, enforce the model code of conduct, order re-polls and recounts; recognises political parties and allots symbols; controls government officers on election duty (transfer, stop transfers, act against partisanship); and, through Article 324, has superintendence, direction and control of elections to Parliament, State legislatures, President and Vice President.

9. Q9 · 6 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

   Evaluate how reserved constituencies and the Delimitation Commission together try to ensure fair representation of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. (6 marks)

   Hint

   Proportion, selection of seats, rotation, common electorate.

   Answer

   Reservation: seats in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies are reserved for SCs and STs in proportion to their share of the population (84 SC and 47 ST seats of 543 as on 26 January 2019), extended by amendments up to 2030. Common electorate: all voters in a reserved constituency vote, and only candidates must belong to the group, so representation is secured without dividing voters, which is why separate electorates were rejected and why Jaipal Singh asked for reserved seats rather than separate electorates. Delimitation: the Commission, appointed by the President and working with the Election Commission, fixes each State's quota of reserved seats, reserves the constituencies with the highest proportion of STs, and for SCs chooses constituencies with a high SC share but spreads them across regions, since SCs are spread fairly evenly; reserved seats can rotate at each delimitation. Evaluation: the system has raised representation from the 24 Adivasi MLAs of 1,585 under the 1935 Act; its limits are that it depends on periodic extension and that candidates in reserved seats must win the votes of all groups, which encourages cohesion but also ties them to the wider electorate.

10. Q10 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

    Why have many suggested that the Leader of the Opposition and the Chief Justice of India be consulted in appointing Election Commissioners? Is security of tenure alone enough to ensure the Commission's independence? (4 marks)

    Hint

    Appointment versus removal.

    Answer

    The chapter notes that the CEC and Election Commissioners were appointed by the President on the advice of the Council of Ministers, so a ruling party could appoint a partisan person; consulting the Opposition and the judiciary would make appointments more broadly trusted. Security of tenure (six years or until 65) and the special-majority rule for removing the CEC protect a Commissioner once in office, but they cannot correct a partisan appointment, so tenure alone is not enough. Independence also comes from collective decision-making in a multi-member Commission and from the Commission's willingness to use its powers firmly, as its record since the 1990s shows.

11. Q11 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

    Why is FPTP said to produce a two-party system, and how has India's experience differed? (4 marks)

    Hint

    Bonus seats; coalitions after 1989.

    Answer

    FPTP rewards the leading parties with bonus seats and makes it hard for third parties to win, so usually two parties alternate in power. In India, after independence there was one-party dominance with many small parties; after 1989 multi-party coalitions emerged, and in many States two-party competition; coalitions have let new and smaller parties enter competition despite FPTP.

12. Q12 · 2 marks · Short answerExam level

    What is the Delimitation Commission and what does it do? (2 marks)

    Hint

    Boundaries and reserved seats.

    Answer

    An independent body appointed by the President, working with the Election Commission, which draws constituency boundaries across the country and decides which constituencies are reserved for SCs and STs (these can rotate at each delimitation).

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.What is another name for the FPTP system?Show answer

   The plurality system.

2. 2.Which two countries treat the whole country as one constituency under PR?Show answer

   Israel and the Netherlands.

3. 3.What is Israel's minimum vote threshold for seats?Show answer

   3.25 per cent.

4. 4.Which elections in India use PR (STV)?Show answer

   Those of the President, Vice President, Rajya Sabha and Vidhan Parishads.

5. 5.When was the voting age reduced from 21 to 18?Show answer

   By a constitutional amendment in 1989.

6. 6.What is the minimum age to contest Lok Sabha elections?Show answer

   25 years.

7. 7.Who appoints the Delimitation Commission?Show answer

   The President of India.

8. 8.Which law provides one-third reservation for women in the Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabhas?Show answer

   The Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (Women's Reservation Act), 2023.

9. 9.In which year did the EC postpone the Gujarat Assembly elections?Show answer

   2002; the Supreme Court upheld the decision.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Large democracies rule through representatives; not all elections are democratic.
• ☐Constitution decides who votes, who contests, who supervises, how voters choose, how votes are counted.
• ☐FPTP: 543 single-member constituencies; most votes wins; majority not needed.
• ☐1984: Congress 48% votes, 415 seats; BJP 7.4%, 2 seats.
• ☐PR: seats proportional to votes; Israel (3.25% threshold), Netherlands; party lists.
• ☐STV for Rajya Sabha: MLAs rank candidates; quota = votes ÷ (seats + 1) + 1.
• ☐FPTP chosen for simplicity, accountability, stable majorities, social cohesion.
• ☐Reserved constituencies (all vote, candidates reserved); separate electorates rejected; 84 SC + 47 ST seats till 2030.
• ☐Adult franchise at 18 (since 1989); contest at 25; no income or education bar.
• ☐Election Commission: Art. 324; multi-member since 1993; six years or 65; CEC removal by special majority.
• ☐Reforms debated: PR, women, money, criminals, caste-religion appeals, party regulation.

Election and Representation: frequently asked questions