Federalism in the Indian Constitution, Class 11 Political Science

What Federalism is about

Weightage: Indian Constitution at Work carries 40 of the 80 theory marks in the school annual exam, shared among its chapters; project work carries the other 20 marks.Source: CBSE Political Science (028) syllabus 2026-27, Class XI course structure

Key concepts

Why federations succeed or fail

NCERT section What is Federalism?

• The USSR broke up after 1989, mainly because of excessive centralisation and Russian domination over regions with their own languages and cultures (e.g. Uzbekistan).
• Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Pakistan also faced division; Canada nearly split between English- and French-speaking regions. All were federations.
• India, born in a painful partition in 1947, has stayed united for over seven decades. So beyond a federal constitution, the nature and practice of the federal system matter.

West Indies: a federation formed in 1958 with a weak centre and economically independent units; political rivalry led to its dissolution in 1962. In 1973 (Treaty of Chaguaramas) the islands set up the Caribbean Community: common legislature, supreme court, currency, a partial common market and a common executive of heads of government. The units could neither stay one country nor fully separate.

Nigeria: Northern and Southern Nigeria were separate colonies till 1914; leaders chose federalism at the Ibadan conference (1950). The Yoruba, Ibo and Hausa-Fulani controlled the West, East and North; rivalry led to military rule. Democracy returned in 1999, but religious differences and conflict over oil revenues persist: an overlap of religious, ethnic and economic divisions.

Worked example

What lesson does the chapter draw from the break-up of the USSR and the failure of the West Indies federation? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. The USSR failed through excessive centralisation and the domination of one region; the West Indies failed through a weak centre and competition among units.
2. So both too much and too little central power can destroy a federation; its practice, balance and culture of trust matter as much as the constitution.

Answer: A federal constitution alone does not ensure unity; balanced powers and a culture of cooperation are needed.

Key features of federalism

NCERT section What is Federalism?

India has more than 20 major languages, several hundred minor ones, several major religions and millions of indigenous people, yet a common land and history: unity in diversity (or 'unity with diversity').

Federalism has no fixed set of principles; it evolves differently (American, German and Indian federalism differ). Its key ideas:
1. Two sets of polities, regional and national, each autonomous in its sphere. Some federations have dual citizenship; India has single citizenship.
2. People have two identities and loyalties: to the region and the nation (e.g. Gujarati or Jharkhandi and Indian).
3. The division is set out in a written, supreme constitution, which is the source of both governments' powers; national subjects (defence, currency) go to the Union, regional matters to the States.
4. An independent judiciary settles legal disputes between the centre and the States over division of powers.

Beyond law: real politics, culture, ideology, history and political parties shape how a federation works. If one unit, language or ideology dominates, resentment can lead to secession demands or civil war.

Worked example

State any four essential features of a federation. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Two levels of government, regional and national, each autonomous in its own sphere.
2. Citizens have dual identities and loyalties, to their region and to the nation.
3. Powers are divided in a written constitution that is supreme and is the source of both governments' authority.
4. An independent judiciary resolves legal disputes between the levels about the division of powers.

Answer: Two autonomous levels, dual identities, a written supreme constitution dividing powers, and an independent judiciary as arbiter.

Federalism in the Indian Constitution

NCERT section Federalism in the Indian Constitution

• Even before independence, national leaders accepted that a large, diverse country needs power shared between provinces and the centre, and that people of each region should govern themselves.
• During pre-Partition talks, a formula giving the regions very large powers was discussed to meet the Muslim League's demands. After Partition was decided, the Constituent Assembly chose a system based on unity and cooperation between the centre and the States, with separate powers for the States.
• Most important feature: Centre-State relations are based on cooperation; the Constitution recognises diversity but emphasises unity.
• The Constitution does not use the word 'federation'. Article 1: 'India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States'; the States and their territories are listed in the First Schedule.

Worked example

Why does the Indian Constitution describe India as a 'Union of States' rather than a federation? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. After Partition, the framers wanted a system based on unity and cooperation between the centre and the States rather than a loose arrangement with very large regional powers.
2. So while dividing powers to recognise diversity, they emphasised the unity of the country (Article 1).

Answer: To stress unity and Centre-State cooperation while still dividing powers: a federation with a unitary emphasis.

Division of powers: three lists

NCERT section Division of Powers

There are two governments with constitutional status: the Union (central) government and a State government in each State. The judiciary resolves disputes over who controls which subject.

List	Examples given in the chapter	Who legislates
Union List	Defence, foreign affairs, atomic energy, war and peace, railways, banking, airways, post and telegraph, currency and coinage, ports, foreign trade	Union legislature alone
State List	Agriculture, police, prisons, local government, public health, land, liquor, trade and commerce, livestock, State public services	Normally the State legislature only
Concurrent List	Education, transfer of non-agricultural property, forests, trade unions, adulteration, adoption and succession	Both Union and State legislatures
Residuary powers	Matters in no list, e.g. cyber laws	Union legislature alone

Key imbalance: economic and financial powers are centralised. The States have huge responsibilities but meagre revenue, a major source of dissatisfaction.

Worked example

Why are residuary powers mentioned separately, and who holds them in India? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. No list can foresee every future subject (cyber laws arose much later), so the Constitution must say who legislates on matters not in any list.
2. In India residuary powers belong to the Union legislature, another sign of a strong centre.

Answer: To cover unforeseen subjects; India gives them to the Union.

Federalism with a strong central government

NCERT section Federalism with a Strong Central Government

Why a strong centre? India was of continental size with immense diversity and social problems; besides British provinces, more than 500 princely states had to be integrated. The framers wanted to stem disintegration and handle poverty, illiteracy and inequality through planning and coordination: concerns of unity and development. T. T. Krishnamachari (1949) noted the drift of all constitutions towards the centre as States became welfare states.

Provisions that strengthen the centre:
1. Existence of States is in Parliament's hands: it can form new States, alter boundaries or names (with the view of the State legislature as a safeguard).
2. Emergency provisions can make the polity highly centralised; Parliament can legislate on State subjects.
3. Financial powers: main revenue items are with the centre; States depend on grants. Planning centralised economic decisions; the Planning Commission coordinated and supervised State resources; discretionary grants led to charges of discrimination against opposition-ruled States.
4. Governor: can recommend dismissal of the State government and dissolution of the Assembly, and can reserve State bills for the President, who may delay or veto them.
5. State List legislation by Parliament if the Rajya Sabha ratifies it.
6. Article 257: the Union's executive power is superior; the Union may give directions to States.
7. All-India services (IAS, IPS): officers serving in States are under central control; States cannot discipline or remove them.
8. Articles 33 and 34: Parliament can protect public servants for actions during martial law; the Armed Forces Special Powers Act rests on these and has caused tensions between people and armed forces at times.

Worked example

A student says India is 'federal in normal times and unitary only in an emergency'. Using four provisions from the chapter, show that the centre is strong even in normal times. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. The existence of States is in Parliament's hands: it can form new States and change their boundaries or names, the State legislature's view being only a safeguard.
2. Major revenue sources lie with the centre, so States depend on central grants and loans in ordinary years too.
3. The centrally appointed Governor can reserve State bills for the President, and under Article 257 the Union can give directions to the States.
4. IAS and IPS officers who run State administration are under central control; States cannot discipline or remove them. Residuary powers also lie with the Union.

Answer: The claim is incomplete: control over States' existence, financial dominance, the Governor with Article 257, and the all-India services make the centre strong even without an emergency.

Centre-State relations over time

NCERT section Centre-State Relations

The Constitution is only a skeleton; the flesh and blood come from politics. Centre-State relations changed with the political process:

1. 1950s to early 1960s: foundations laid under Jawaharlal Nehru; Congress dominance at the centre and in the States. Relations were normal except over new States; States hoped for progress through grants-in-aid and shared optimism about central development policies.
2. Mid-1960s onwards: Congress dominance declined; opposition parties won many States. Different parties at the centre and in the States led to demands for autonomy and protests against interference; the Congress was uneasy dealing with opposition governments. Autonomy became politically potent in this phase.
3. Since the 1990s: Congress dominance largely ended; coalition politics at the centre; national and regional parties in the States. Result: greater say for the States, respect for diversity and the beginning of a more mature federalism.

Legal disputes go to the judiciary, but autonomy demands are political and need negotiation.

Worked example

How did the end of one-party dominance change Centre-State relations in India? (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Under Congress dominance in the 1950s and early 1960s, the same party ruled at the centre and in most States, so relations were largely smooth.
2. From the mid-1960s, opposition parties won many States; they protested central interference and demanded autonomy, and the centre was uneasy with them.
3. This produced a debate on autonomy and conflicts over Governors and Article 356.
4. Since the 1990s coalition governments at the centre have depended on regional parties, giving States a greater say and a more mature federalism.

Answer: It moved relations from smooth one-party coordination to conflict over autonomy and then to bargaining and more mature federalism.

Demands for autonomy

NCERT section Demands for Autonomy

'Autonomy' means different things to different States and parties:

1. Change in division of powers in favour of the States, with more and important powers: demanded by Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal and parties such as the DMK, Akali Dal and CPI(M).
2. Financial autonomy: independent revenue sources and control over resources; the Left Front government of West Bengal (1977) issued a document seeking restructuring of Centre-State relations; Tamil Nadu's and Punjab's demands implicitly backed financial powers.
3. Administrative autonomy: States resent central control over the administrative machinery.
4. Cultural and linguistic autonomy: opposition to Hindi domination (Tamil Nadu), advancing Punjabi language and culture; 1960s agitations against imposition of Hindi. Nehru appealed to Hindi-speaking provinces in the Constituent Assembly to show tolerance.

Autonomy is not secession: it seeks more powers within the Union, not separation.

Worked example

Tamil Nadu's protests against the imposition of Hindi and the West Bengal Left Front government's 1977 document were both demands for autonomy. Which kind of autonomy did each mainly stress, and what other kinds of autonomy have States sought? (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Tamil Nadu's agitations stressed cultural and linguistic autonomy, opposing Hindi domination; Tamil Nadu (with the DMK) also sought a change in the division of powers in favour of the States.
2. West Bengal's 1977 document demanded a restructuring of Centre-State relations, an example of the demand for financial autonomy: independent revenue sources and greater control over resources.
3. Administrative autonomy: States resent central control over the administrative machinery, such as the all-India services.
4. A redistribution of powers giving States more and more important subjects, also demanded by Punjab (Akali Dal) and parties such as the CPI(M).

Answer: Tamil Nadu: cultural and linguistic (and more powers); West Bengal: financial; other demands concern administrative autonomy and a redistribution of powers.

Governors and President's rule (Article 356)

NCERT section Role of Governors and President's Rule

Why the Governor is controversial: not elected; often a retired military officer, civil servant or politician; appointed by the centre, so actions look like central interference, especially when different parties rule at the centre and the State. The Sarkaria Commission (appointed 1983, reported 1988) recommended strictly non-partisan appointments of Governors.

Article 356 (President's rule): applied when the government of a State cannot be carried on according to the Constitution; the Union takes over the State government.

• The proclamation must be ratified by Parliament; President's rule can be extended up to three years.
• The Governor can recommend dismissal of the State government and suspension or dissolution of the Assembly.

Misuse: governments dismissed despite a majority (Kerala, 1959) or without a floor test (several States after 1967). Used sparingly till 1967; afterwards the centre often used it or the Governor's office to keep the majority party or coalition out. Elected governments were removed in Andhra Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir in the 1980s.

Judicial check: the Supreme Court has ruled that the constitutional validity of imposing President's rule can be examined by the judiciary.

Worked example

Why has Article 356 been a source of Centre-State conflict? (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. It lets the Union take over a State government when it 'cannot be carried on' constitutionally, on the report of a centrally appointed Governor.
2. It was used to dismiss governments that had a majority (Kerala, 1959) or without testing their majority (after 1967).
3. After 1967, with opposition governments in many States, the centre often used it or the Governor to keep majority parties out of office (Andhra Pradesh, J&K in the 1980s).
4. Hence the Sarkaria Commission sought non-partisan Governors, and the Supreme Court held that the imposition can be judicially reviewed.

Answer: Because it has often been used for partisan ends through the Governor, overriding elected State governments.

Demands for new States and inter-State conflicts

NCERT section Demands for New States; Interstate Conflicts

New States: the national movement created pan-Indian unity and also unity around language, region and culture; it was decided that States would, as far as possible, be based on common culture and language.

• States Reorganisation Commission: set up December 1953; recommended linguistic States for major language groups; reorganisation in 1956.
• 1960: Gujarat and Maharashtra; 1966: Punjab and Haryana separated; then the North-East reorganised (Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh).
• 2000: Chhattisgarh (from Madhya Pradesh), Uttarakhand (from Uttar Pradesh), Jharkhand (from Bihar), for both statehood demands and administrative efficiency.
• 2014: Telangana from Andhra Pradesh. Movements continue, e.g. Vidarbha in Maharashtra.

Inter-State conflicts (legal, but also political; best solved by negotiation):
1. Border disputes: border areas speak more than one language. Belgaum (Maharashtra-Karnataka); Manipur-Nagaland; Punjab-Haryana over borders and Chandigarh (capital of both; the 1985 Rajiv Gandhi understanding to give it to Punjab has not been implemented).
2. River water disputes (more serious: drinking water and farming): Cauvery (Tamil Nadu-Karnataka; despite a tribunal, it reached the Supreme Court); Narmada (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra).

Worked example

Why are river water disputes considered more serious than border disputes? Give an example. (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Border disputes are mainly about sentiment, whereas river waters affect drinking water and agriculture, the livelihood of farmers in both States.
2. Example: the Cauvery dispute between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, which reached the Supreme Court despite a water tribunal (or the Narmada dispute).

Answer: They concern survival needs (water for drinking and farming), as in the Cauvery dispute.

Special provisions and Jammu and Kashmir

NCERT section Special Provisions

The most extraordinary feature of Indian federalism is differential treatment of States (asymmetric federalism):

• Rajya Sabha: asymmetrical representation by size and population, with a minimum for small States.
• Special provisions for the North-Eastern States (Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, etc.) because of large indigenous tribal populations with distinct history and culture; but these have not stemmed alienation and insurgency in parts of the region.
• Also for hilly States like Himachal Pradesh and for Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Sikkim and Telangana.

Jammu and Kashmir (former Article 370):

• A large princely State with the option to join India or Pakistan or stay independent. In October 1947 Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators; Maharaja Hari Singh sought Indian help and acceded to India. Unlike many Muslim-majority areas, J&K joined India, and was given greater autonomy.
• Under Article 370, the State's concurrence was needed for laws on Union and Concurrent List matters. Through two Presidential orders (with State concurrence), large parts of the Constitution were applied; J&K had a separate constitution and flag, but Parliament's Union List powers were fully accepted.
• Remaining differences: no internal-disturbance emergency without State concurrence; no financial emergency; Directive Principles did not apply; amendments under Article 368 applied only with State concurrence.
• Now: the special status under Article 370 no longer exists. The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act 2019 created two Union Territories: Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh.

Worked example

The chapter calls the differential treatment of States the most extraordinary feature of Indian federalism. Give two examples of this asymmetry and explain why it need not conflict with the equality of States. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Example 1: the Rajya Sabha gives States seats by size and population, with a minimum for small States, so representation is deliberately unequal.
2. Example 2: special provisions for North-Eastern States with large indigenous tribal populations and distinct histories and cultures, and for hilly States such as Himachal Pradesh.
3. Treating States with different circumstances differently protects their cultures and can reduce alienation, which supports unity rather than threatening it.
4. The chapter adds a caution: special provisions have not by themselves stemmed alienation and insurgency in parts of the North-East, and other States may resent them, so trust and the political process also matter.

Answer: Asymmetric Rajya Sabha representation and special provisions for the North-East and hill States recognise real differences; equal treatment of unequal situations could itself be unfair, though asymmetry alone does not guarantee unity.

Federalism in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• Centre-State Relations: Autonomy Demands, the Governor and Article 356, New States and Special Provisions
• Federalism: Key Features, the Union of States, the Three Lists and Provisions for a Strong Centre

Federalism: key facts

Features of federalism

Two autonomous levels + dual identity + written supreme constitution dividing powers + independent judiciary as arbiter

India: single citizenship.

Three lists

Union List	defence, currency, railways
State List	police, agriculture, public health
Concurrent List	education, forests, trade unions
	Residuary (cyber laws) → Union

Financial powers centralised; States have meagre revenue.

Strong centre

• •States' existence
• •emergency
• •finance and planning
• •Governor
• •Rajya Sabha route to State List
• •Art. 257
• •all-India services
• •Arts. 33-34

Reasons: unity (500+ princely states) and development.

Phases of Centre-State relations

1. 1.Nehru-era Congress dominance
2. 2.mid-1960s opposition States, autonomy demands
3. 3.1990s coalitions, mature federalism

Autonomy demands are political, settled by negotiation.

Autonomy demands

Powers + Finance + Administration + Culture/Language

Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal; DMK, Akali Dal, CPI(M); West Bengal 1977 document.

Article 356

1. 1.Governor's report
2. 2.President's proclamation
3. 3.Parliament's ratification
4. 4.up to 3 years

Kerala 1959; Sarkaria Commission 1983-88; judicially reviewable.

New States timeline

1. 1.SRC 1953
2. 2.1956 reorganisation
3. 3.1960 Gujarat, Maharashtra
4. 4.1966 Punjab, Haryana
5. 5.North-East
6. 6.2000 Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand
7. 7.2014 Telangana

J&K Reorganisation Act 2019: UTs of J&K and Ladakh.

How the school exam asks Federalism

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember Federalism

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• Federal features: T-D-W-J

  Two levels, Dual identity, Written constitution, Judiciary as umpire.

  Use it when: Features of federalism.

• Strong centre: 'SEFG RAAA'

  States' existence, Emergency, Finance, Governor, Rajya Sabha route, Art. 257, All-India services, Arts. 33-34.

  Use it when: Unitary features list.

• Autonomy: P-F-A-C

  Powers, Finance, Administration, Culture.

  Use it when: Autonomy demands.

• States ladder 53-56-60-66-00-14

  SRC 1953, reorganisation 1956, Gujarat and Maharashtra 1960, Punjab and Haryana 1966, three new States 2000, Telangana 2014.

  Use it when: New States timeline.

• Failed federations: U-W-N

  USSR (too strong a centre), West Indies (too weak), Nigeria (no trust).

  Use it when: Comparative examples.

Federalism: exam-level solved questions

Ordered from exam level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section E style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In a school exam set on the board pattern this is a 4-mark question split into 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in Federalism

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Saying the Constitution calls India a federation

  India is federal in structure, so students assume the word is used.

  Wrong working

  Article 1 declares India a federation of States.

  Right working

  Article 1 says India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States; the word 'federation' is not used.

  ✓Do this: Quote Article 1 exactly.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Giving residuary powers to the States

  In the USA residuary powers lie with the states.

  Wrong working

  Subjects not in any list go to the States.

  Right working

  In India residuary powers belong to the Union legislature (e.g. cyber laws).

  ✓Do this: India: residuary = Union.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Equating autonomy demands with secession

  Both involve tension with the centre.

  Wrong working

  Tamil Nadu's autonomy demand was a demand to leave India.

  Right working

  Autonomy seeks more powers within the Union; it is political and resolved by negotiation.

  ✓Do this: Autonomy inside; secession outside.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Treating any political crisis as a case for Article 356

  Students recall that it has often been used.

  Wrong working

  President's rule should be imposed whenever crime rises or rival parties rule.

  Right working

  It applies only when the State government cannot be carried on according to the Constitution, and its validity can be judicially reviewed.

  ✓Do this: Apply the constitutional breakdown test.

  Usually costs: Most of a 4-mark situation question.

• ✗Mistake: Describing J&K's special status as still in force

  Older notes describe Article 370 in the present tense.

  Wrong working

  J&K has a separate constitution under Article 370.

  Right working

  The special status no longer exists; the 2019 Reorganisation Act created the Union Territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh.

  ✓Do this: Use the past tense for Article 370 features.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Mixing up the years of new States

  Many dates in one section.

  Wrong working

  Jharkhand was created in 1966 and Telangana in 2000.

  Right working

  1966 Punjab and Haryana; 2000 Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand; 2014 Telangana.

  ✓Do this: Learn the timeline as a ladder.

  Usually costs: 1 mark each.

NCERT exercise guide: Federalism

What each exercise in the NCERT chapter tests, how to approach it, and a question of the same kind solved step by step. Questions here are written in our own words.

Practice questions on Federalism

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · MCQExam level

   Which Article describes India as a 'Union of States'?
   (a) Article 1
   (b) Article 3
   (c) Article 257
   (d) Article 356

   Hint

   The very first Article.

   Answer

   (a) Article 1.

2. Q2 · 1 mark · MCQExam level

   Telangana was formed in:
   (a) 2000
   (b) 2006
   (c) 2014
   (d) 2019

   Hint

   Carved out of Andhra Pradesh.

   Answer

   (c) 2014.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · MCQHarder exam level

   Consider the statements:
   1. The Constitution uses the word 'federation' to describe India.
   2. Residuary powers belong to the Union.
   3. India has single citizenship.
   Which are correct?
   (a) 1 and 2
   (b) 2 and 3
   (c) 1 and 3
   (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Hint

   The word 'federation' is absent.

   Answer

   (b) 2 and 3.

4. Q4 · 1 mark · MCQHarder exam level

   Match:
   A. Belgaum 1. Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
   B. Chandigarh 2. Maharashtra and Karnataka
   C. Cauvery 3. Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra
   D. Narmada 4. Punjab and Haryana
   (a) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
   (b) A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3
   (c) A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1
   (d) A-1, B-4, C-2, D-3

   Hint

   Two borders, two rivers.

   Answer

   (a).

5. Q5 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder exam level

   Assertion (A): The Governor's role often becomes controversial when different parties rule at the centre and in the State.
   Reason (R): The Governor is appointed by the central government and can recommend dismissal of the State government.
   Choose the correct option as in the standard A-R format.

   Hint

   Central appointee.

   Answer

   (a) Both true; R explains A.

6. Q6 · 1 mark · MCQExam level

   The West Indies federation was dissolved in:
   (a) 1958
   (b) 1962
   (c) 1973
   (d) 1989

   Hint

   Formed 1958; Caribbean Community 1973.

   Answer

   (b) 1962.

7. Q7 · 2 marks · Short answerExam level

   Distinguish between autonomy and secession. (2 marks)

   Hint

   Within versus out of the Union.

   Answer

   Autonomy means a State seeking more powers, resources or cultural freedom within the Indian Union; secession means breaking away to form a separate country. Indian autonomy demands are political and settled by negotiation.

8. Q8 · 2 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   How do all-India services and Article 257 strengthen the centre? (2 marks)

   Hint

   Officers and directions.

   Answer

   IAS and IPS officers who run State administration are controlled by the centre; States cannot discipline or remove them. Article 257 makes Union executive power superior and lets the Union give directions to States.

9. Q9 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   Classify each event as showing federal cooperation or Centre-State tension, with a reason: (a) a State Assembly passes a resolution asking for more taxing powers for the States; (b) two States settle a water dispute through talks with the Union government's help; (c) the Union transfers an IAS officer serving in a State despite the State's objection; (d) a State releases funds to districts from a central grant for drought relief. (4 marks)

   Hint

   Financial and administrative autonomy; negotiation; cooperative federalism.

   Answer

   (a) Tension, but a legitimate one: it is a demand for financial autonomy, raised politically within the Union, not secession. (b) Cooperation: the chapter says inter-State disputes are best settled by negotiation and mutual understanding. (c) Tension: all-India service officers are under central control and States cannot discipline or remove them, which feeds demands for administrative autonomy. (d) Cooperation: the centre, which controls major revenue sources, supports States through grants, and States implement the relief.

10. Q10 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

    Federalism 'celebrates both unity and diversity'. Explain with reference to the chapter's conclusion. (4 marks)

    Hint

    Rainbow; forced unity.

    Answer

    Like a rainbow, each State keeps its own colour (language, culture, government) while forming one pattern. No legal formula guarantees success; mutual trust, toleration and cooperation are needed. Unity cannot be built by erasing differences: forced uniformity produces strife and alienation and destroys unity. A polity responsive to diversity and autonomy demands is the basis of cooperative federalism.

11. Q11 · 6 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

    'The Rajya Sabha and the Governor were meant to protect the federal balance, but in practice both have strengthened the centre.' Examine this statement. (6 marks)

    Hint

    State List route; reservation of bills; Article 356; Sarkaria; coalition era.

    Answer

    For: Parliament can legislate on a State List subject if the Rajya Sabha approves, so the House that represents the States can be used to extend the Union's reach. The Governor is appointed by the centre, can reserve State bills for the President, who may delay or veto them, and can recommend dismissal of the State government under Article 356; governments were dismissed despite a majority (Kerala, 1959) or without floor tests after 1967, and elected governments were removed in Andhra Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir in the 1980s. Against: the Rajya Sabha still gives every State a voice and small States a minimum representation; the Sarkaria Commission (1983-1988) recommended strictly non-partisan Governors; the Supreme Court has held that President's rule can be judicially examined; and in the coalition era since the 1990s States have gained a greater say. Judgement: both institutions have often served the centre, but judicial checks and coalition politics have restored some balance.

12. Q12 · 4 marks · Short answerExam level

    Trace the creation of new States in India since 1953. (4 marks)

    Hint

    SRC to Telangana.

    Answer

    The States Reorganisation Commission (December 1953) recommended linguistic States; reorganisation began in 1956. Gujarat and Maharashtra were created in 1960; Punjab and Haryana separated in 1966; the North-East was reorganised (Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh). In 2000 Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand were carved out of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar; in 2014 Telangana was formed from Andhra Pradesh. Demands like Vidarbha continue.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.What did Mysore and Madras States become?Show answer

   Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

2. 2.Which Schedule lists the States and their territories?Show answer

   The First Schedule.

3. 3.Give two subjects of the Union List.Show answer

   Any two: defence, atomic energy, foreign affairs, banking, railways, currency.

4. 4.How long can President's rule be extended?Show answer

   Up to three years.

5. 5.When did the Left Front government of West Bengal issue its document on Centre-State relations?Show answer

   1977.

6. 6.Which Act is based on Articles 33 and 34?Show answer

   The Armed Forces Special Powers Act.

7. 7.Which State's government was dismissed in 1959 despite a majority?Show answer

   Kerala.

8. 8.Which city is the capital of both Punjab and Haryana?Show answer

   Chandigarh.

9. 9.Into which Union Territories was J&K reorganised in 2019?Show answer

   Jammu and Kashmir, and Ladakh.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐USSR (over-centralised), West Indies (weak centre, 1958-62), Nigeria (no trust): practice matters, not just the constitution.
• ☐Federal features: two autonomous levels, dual identity, written supreme constitution, judiciary as umpire; India has single citizenship.
• ☐Article 1: India is a Union of States; cooperation is the key principle.
• ☐Union, State and Concurrent Lists; residuary powers with the Union; finances centralised.
• ☐Strong centre for unity (500+ princely states) and development (planning).
• ☐Centre-State phases: Congress dominance, opposition States after mid-1960s, coalition era since 1990s.
• ☐Autonomy demands: powers, finance, administration, culture and language.
• ☐Governor and Article 356: Kerala 1959, misuse after 1967; Sarkaria Commission 1983-88; judicial review.
• ☐New States: SRC 1953 → 1956 → 1960 → 1966 → 2000 → 2014 Telangana.
• ☐Inter-State disputes: Belgaum, Chandigarh, Cauvery, Narmada.
• ☐Special provisions: North-East, hill States and others; Article 370 special status ended; 2019 UTs of J&K and Ladakh.

Federalism: frequently asked questions