The Executive in India and the USA: ISC Class 12 Political Science

What The Executive is about

Weightage: CISCE publishes no chapter or unit weightage for ISC Political Science. The Executive is part of Section A: Organs of the Government, 5 of the 2027 syllabus and can be asked anywhere in the 80-mark Paper I (Section A 16 one-mark items, Section B 4-mark short answers, Section C 8-mark long answers).Source: CISCE ISC Political Science (852) syllabus, examination year 2027; ISC 2027 specimen question paper

Key concepts

Political executive and permanent executive

Meaning of the executive: the organ that implements laws and policies and runs the administration.

Political executive: the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers (and, formally, the President), who are elected representatives or chosen from them, belong to political parties, frame policy and are accountable to Parliament and the people.

Permanent executive: the civil servants (bureaucracy), such as officers of the Indian Administrative Service, who are appointed on merit and serve until retirement, carrying out policy whatever party is in power.

Differences
1. Selection: political - elected or chosen by the party in power; permanent - appointed on merit through competitive examinations (UPSC).
2. Tenure: political - temporary, usually five years or less, depending on elections and confidence; permanent - till retirement.
3. Political affiliation: political - party members; permanent - politically neutral.
4. Expertise: political - generalists, may lack specialised knowledge; permanent - trained experts.
5. Role: political - makes policy and takes decisions; permanent - advises on and implements policy.
6. Responsibility: political - responsible to Parliament and the people; permanent - responsible to ministers, anonymous.

Worked example

[4] After an election a new minister takes charge of a ministry, but its secretary stays in place. Use this to explain two differences between the political and the permanent executive. (Understand)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Selection and tenure: political executive elected for a limited term; permanent executive appointed on merit and serves till retirement - 2 marks.
2. Role and neutrality: political executive makes policy and belongs to parties; permanent executive is neutral and expert, advising on and implementing policy - 2 marks.

Answer: (1) Selection and tenure: ministers forming the political executive come from elected representatives and hold office only as long as their party has a majority, while civil servants of the permanent executive are appointed on merit through bodies like the UPSC and serve until retirement. (2) Role and neutrality: the political executive belongs to parties and decides policy, answering to Parliament; the permanent executive is politically neutral and expert, advising ministers and implementing policy whichever party is in power.

The Indian President: election, executive and legislative powers

Election: by an electoral college of the elected members of both Houses of Parliament and the elected members of the state Legislative Assemblies (including Delhi and Puducherry), by proportional representation through the single transferable vote (Articles 54-55). Term: five years; removable by impeachment (Article 61).

Executive powers
1. The executive power of the Union is vested in the President (Article 53); all executive actions are taken in his or her name.
2. Appoints the Prime Minister and, on the PM's advice, other ministers; appoints the Attorney General, Comptroller and Auditor General, Chief Election Commissioner, Governors, judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, and members of the UPSC and Finance Commission.
3. Supreme Commander of the defence forces.
4. Diplomatic: appoints ambassadors, receives foreign envoys; treaties are made in the President's name.
5. Administers union territories through administrators.

Legislative powers
1. Summons and prorogues the Houses and can dissolve the Lok Sabha.
2. Addresses Parliament at the start of the first session each year and after each general election.
3. Nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha.
4. Assent to bills: can give assent, withhold it, or return a non-money bill for reconsideration once; if passed again, must assent.
5. Ordinances (Article 123): can issue ordinances when Parliament is not in session; they must be approved within six weeks of Parliament reassembling.
6. Prior recommendation is needed for money bills and bills to form new states.
7. Can summon a joint sitting to resolve a deadlock (Article 108).

All these are exercised on the advice of the Council of Ministers (Article 74).

Worked example

[4] Give one power of the Indian President that is executive in nature and one that is legislative, explaining each. (Understand)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Executive power: appointment of the Prime Minister, ministers, Governors, judges and other high officials - 2 marks.
2. Legislative power: ordinance-making when Parliament is not in session (Article 123), valid until six weeks after Parliament reassembles - 2 marks.

Answer: Executive power: the executive power of the Union vests in the President, who appoints the Prime Minister and, on the PM's advice, the other ministers, as well as Governors, judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts and officers such as the CAG. Legislative power: when Parliament is not in session the President can issue ordinances with the force of law under Article 123; they lapse six weeks after Parliament reassembles unless approved.

Emergency and discretionary powers of the Indian President

Emergency powers
1. National emergency (Article 352): on grounds of war, external aggression or armed rebellion (the words 'armed rebellion' replaced 'internal disturbance' by the 44th Amendment, 1978). It can be proclaimed only on the written advice of the Cabinet and must be approved by both Houses within one month. Effects: the Centre can direct the states, Parliament can make laws on State List subjects, and the rights under Article 19 are suspended in the case of war or external aggression; the enforcement of other rights may be suspended, except Articles 20 and 21.
2. President's rule in a state (Article 356): if the government of a state cannot be carried on in accordance with the Constitution, on the Governor's report or otherwise; Parliament's approval within two months.
3. Financial emergency (Article 360): if the financial stability or credit of India is threatened; it has never been used.

Discretionary powers (where the President may use personal judgement)
1. Appointing the Prime Minister when no party or coalition has a clear majority in the Lok Sabha.
2. Dismissing a Council of Ministers that has lost its majority but refuses to resign.
3. Deciding whether to dissolve the Lok Sabha on the advice of a government that has lost its majority.
4. Returning the advice of the Council of Ministers for reconsideration once (Article 74(1), added by the 44th Amendment); the President must accept it if it is repeated.
5. Withholding assent or keeping a bill pending without a time limit ('pocket veto'), since the Constitution sets no deadline for assent.
6. Seeking information from the Prime Minister on administration and legislation (Article 78).

Worked example

[4] Explain any two discretionary powers of the President of India. (Analyse)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Choosing the Prime Minister when no party has a clear majority (a hung Lok Sabha), judging who can command confidence - 2 marks.
2. Returning the Council of Ministers' advice once for reconsideration (Article 74(1)), or keeping a bill pending (pocket veto) - 2 marks.

Answer: (1) When no party or coalition has a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the President uses personal judgement to invite the leader most likely to win a vote of confidence to become Prime Minister. (2) The President may return the advice of the Council of Ministers once for reconsideration under Article 74(1), and, since no time limit is fixed for assent, may delay a bill indefinitely (a pocket veto).

The Prime Minister of India: powers and position

The Prime Minister is the real head of the government in India's parliamentary system.

1. Link between the Cabinet and the President (Article 78): communicates all Cabinet decisions on administration and legislation to the President, furnishes information the President asks for, and advises the President on appointments.
2. Formation of the Council of Ministers: the President appoints other ministers on the PM's advice; the PM decides who will be a minister, allocates and reshuffles portfolios, and can ask any minister to resign. If the PM resigns or dies, the whole Council of Ministers is dissolved.
3. Chairman of the Cabinet: presides over Cabinet meetings, decides the agenda, co-ordinates the work of ministries and settles disputes between ministers; Cabinet decisions largely reflect the PM's view.
4. Leader of Parliament: as leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha, the PM is the chief spokesman of the government in Parliament, announces major policies, answers important questions and defends the government; advises the President on summoning and proroguing the Houses and on dissolving the Lok Sabha.
5. Leader of the nation: leader of the ruling party, the chief spokesman of the country in international affairs and summits, the main policy-maker on development (chairs bodies such as the NITI Aayog), and the leader in times of crisis.

Position: described as 'first among equals', but in practice far more powerful, especially when leading a party with a clear majority; with a coalition the PM's position depends on allies.

Worked example

[4] How does the Prime Minister of India lead both the Council of Ministers and Parliament? Explain two points for each. (Understand)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Parliament: leader of the House; announces policy and defends the government - 1 mark.
2. Parliament: advises the President on summoning, proroguing and dissolving the Lok Sabha - 1 mark.
3. Council of Ministers: recommends ministers and allocates and reshuffles portfolios - 1 mark.
4. Council of Ministers: chairs the Cabinet and co-ordinates ministries; his resignation dissolves the Council - 1 mark.

Answer: In Parliament the Prime Minister is the leader of the House, the chief spokesman who announces policies and defends the government, and advises the President on summoning and proroguing the Houses and on dissolving the Lok Sabha. In the Council of Ministers the PM chooses the ministers, allocates and reshuffles portfolios, presides over the Cabinet and co-ordinates all ministries; the PM's resignation means the resignation of the whole Council.

The US President: executive and legislative powers

Election and tenure: elected for four years through the Electoral College (538 electors; 270 needed to win); can serve at most two terms (22nd Amendment, 1951); must be a natural-born citizen, at least 35 years old and resident in the USA for 14 years.

Executive powers
1. Chief executive: the executive power is vested in the President (Article II); enforces federal laws and treaties, and directs the administration through executive orders.
2. Appointments and removal: appoints secretaries, ambassadors, federal judges and senior officials with the Senate's consent; can remove executive officers.
3. Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces; can send troops abroad, although only Congress can declare war.
4. Foreign relations: makes treaties (ratified by two-thirds of the Senate), signs executive agreements without Senate approval, recognises foreign governments, appoints and receives envoys.
5. Pardons and reprieves for federal offences (except impeachment).

Legislative powers (although not a member of Congress)
1. Messages: the State of the Union address and other messages recommending legislation; the annual budget proposal.
2. Veto: may return a bill with objections within ten days (Sundays excepted); Congress can override only by a two-thirds majority in both Houses.
3. Pocket veto: if Congress adjourns within the ten days and the President does not sign, the bill dies.
4. Special sessions: can summon Congress or either House in an emergency.
5. Delegated legislation and executive orders that have the effect of law within the limits of statutes.

How the President influences legislation: through messages and the budget, the threat of veto, party leadership and allies in Congress who introduce bills, patronage and bargaining, and appeals to public opinion through the media (the 'bully pulpit').

Worked example

[4] Explain two legislative powers of the US President. (Understand)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Veto: may return a bill within ten days; override needs two-thirds of both Houses; pocket veto if Congress adjourns - 2 marks.
2. Messages: State of the Union and special messages recommend laws; the budget proposal sets the legislative agenda - 2 marks.

Answer: (1) Veto: the President may return any bill to Congress with objections within ten days; it becomes law only if both Houses pass it again by two-thirds, and if Congress adjourns within the ten days an unsigned bill dies by pocket veto. (2) Messages: through the State of the Union address, special messages and the annual budget proposal, the President recommends measures that set the agenda for Congress, and allies in Congress introduce the bills.

Comparison of the executives of India and the USA

1. Method of election: India - President elected indirectly by MPs and MLAs through the single transferable vote; PM is the leader of the majority in the Lok Sabha. USA - President elected through the Electoral College, which in practice follows the popular vote in each state.
2. Type of executive: India - dual: the President is the nominal head, the PM and Council of Ministers the real executive. USA - single: the President is both head of state and head of government.
3. Relation with the legislature: India - the President is part of Parliament, can dissolve the Lok Sabha; ministers are MPs and responsible to the Lok Sabha. USA - the President is not part of Congress, cannot dissolve it, and cannot be removed by it except by impeachment; secretaries cannot sit in Congress.
4. Relation with the cabinet: India - the President must act on the advice of the Council of Ministers (Article 74). USA - the cabinet consists of the President's appointees and advisers; he may ignore their advice.
5. Role in financial matters: India - money bills need the President's prior recommendation and the Budget is laid before Parliament in the President's name, but prepared by the Finance Minister on the Cabinet's behalf. USA - the President prepares and submits a budget proposal, but Congress controls taxation and appropriations; the President can veto appropriation bills.
6. Tenure: India - President five years (no term limit), PM as long as the Lok Sabha's confidence lasts; USA - four years, maximum two terms.

Worked example

[4] Compare the Indian and US executives on 'type of executive' and 'relation with the cabinet'. (Analyse)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Type: India - nominal President and real PM with Council of Ministers - 1 mark.
2. Type: USA - single real executive, the President - 1 mark.
3. Cabinet: India - President bound by the Council of Ministers' advice (Article 74) - 1 mark.
4. Cabinet: USA - cabinet are advisers chosen by and subordinate to the President, who may disregard them - 1 mark.

Answer: Type: India has a dual executive in which the President is the nominal head and the Prime Minister with the Council of Ministers the real executive, while the USA has a single executive in which the President is both head of state and of government. Relation with the cabinet: the Indian President must act on the advice of the Council of Ministers under Article 74, whereas the US President appoints his cabinet as personal advisers and is free to disregard their advice.

The Executive in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• Emergency and Discretionary Powers of the President of India
• The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers

The Executive: key facts

Indian President

Elected by MPs and MLAs (STV); 5 years; impeachment Article 61

Acts on advice of Council of Ministers (Article 74).

Emergency powers

Article 352 (war, external aggression, armed rebellion); 356 (state); 360 (financial)

Article 360 never used.

Ordinance

Article 123

Lapses six weeks after Parliament reassembles unless approved.

Prime Minister

Article 75 (appointment, collective responsibility); Article 78 (duties to inform President)

Link, Council, Cabinet, Parliament, nation.

US President

Electoral College (270 of 538); 4 years; two-term limit (22nd Amendment)

Age 35; natural-born citizen.

US veto

Return within 10 days; override by 2/3 of both Houses; pocket veto if Congress adjourns

Congress alone declares war.

How the board asks The Executive

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember The Executive

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• PM's five hats: 'L-F-C-P-N'

  Link to the President, Former of the Council, Chairman of the Cabinet, Parliament's leader, Nation's leader.

  Use it when: Powers of the PM, in syllabus order.

• Article 352 grounds: 'W-E-A'

  War, External aggression, Armed rebellion.

  Use it when: Fill-in items.

• Comparison bases: 'E-T-L-C-F'

  Election, Type, Legislature, Cabinet, Finance.

  Use it when: Syllabus bases for comparing the executives.

The Executive: board-level solved questions

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section D style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In the board paper this is a 8-mark question split into 2 + 2 + 3 + 1 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in The Executive

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Mixing up legislative and executive powers

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2025: candidates 'Confused the legislative and executive powers of the President' (for both the Indian and the US President).

  Wrong working

  Executive power: the President issues ordinances.

  Right working

  Ordinances are a legislative power; appointing the Prime Minister is an executive power.

  ✓Do this: Ask: does it make law (legislative) or run administration (executive)?

  Usually costs: 2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Skipping the 'how does he influence legislation' part

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2025: candidates 'Did not answer the second part on influencing legislation.'

  ✓Do this: Tick off every part of a multi-part question before moving on.

  Usually costs: Up to 4 marks.

• ✗Mistake: PM's role covered for only one body

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2024: 'Very few explained the PM's role properly in relation to both Parliament and the Council of Ministers.'

  ✓Do this: Two headings: Parliament and Council of Ministers, two points under each.

  Usually costs: 2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Invented terms for the pocket veto

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2025: candidates 'Gave invented terms such as "dead bill" or "kill bill" instead of pocket veto.'

  ✓Do this: Learn the vocabulary: veto, pocket veto, override, executive order.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Wrong grounds for national emergency

  CISCE examiners' comments, 2025 (Article 352): candidates 'Wrote grounds that do not match emergency conditions under Article 352.'

  ✓Do this: War, external aggression, armed rebellion (not 'internal disturbance' since 1978; not 'financial crisis', which is Article 360).

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

Practice questions on The Executive

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · Very short answerBoard level

   An IAS officer has served five different governments over thirty years. To which part of the executive does she belong?

   Hint

   Not political.

   Answer

   Permanent executive.

2. Q2 · 1 mark · Very short answerBoard level

   What majority is needed in Congress to override a presidential veto?

   Hint

   In both Houses.

   Answer

   Two-thirds of each House.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · MCQHarder board level

   Which Article lays down the duties of the Prime Minister to keep the President informed?
   (a) Article 74
   (b) Article 75
   (c) Article 78
   (d) Article 123

   Hint

   Link function.

   Answer

   (c) Article 78.

4. Q4 · 1 mark · Very short answerHarder board level

   Which amendment limits the US President to two terms?

   Hint

   1951.

   Answer

   The 22nd Amendment.

5. Q5 · 4 marks · Short answerBoard level

   [4] Explain the role of the Prime Minister as the link between the Cabinet and the President and as Chairman of the Cabinet.

   Hint

   Article 78; agenda, co-ordination.

   Answer

   Link: under Article 78 the PM communicates all Cabinet decisions on administration and legislation to the President, supplies information the President seeks and advises on appointments. Chairman: the PM presides over Cabinet meetings, sets the agenda, co-ordinates ministries, resolves disputes among ministers and guides decisions, which therefore largely reflect the PM's views.

6. Q6 · 4 marks · Short answerBoard level

   [4] Explain two executive powers of the US President.

   Hint

   Appointments; Commander-in-Chief or foreign relations.

   Answer

   (1) Appointment and removal: the President appoints secretaries, ambassadors and federal judges with the Senate's consent and can remove executive officials, so he controls the administration. (2) Commander-in-Chief and chief diplomat: he directs the armed forces, makes treaties (ratified by two-thirds of the Senate) and executive agreements, and recognises foreign governments.

7. Q7 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   [4] Why is the Prime Minister of India said to be more than 'first among equals'?

   Hint

   Choosing and dismissing ministers; resignation effect.

   Answer

   (1) The PM chooses ministers and can dismiss any of them, so ministers depend on the PM. (2) The PM allocates and changes portfolios. (3) The PM's resignation dissolves the whole Council of Ministers. (4) As leader of the majority party and of the nation, the PM dominates Cabinet, Parliament and public policy; hence the PM is far more than first among equals, though coalition politics can limit this.

8. Q8 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   [4] Explain the effects of a proclamation of national emergency under Article 352.

   Hint

   Federal, legislative, rights, approval.

   Answer

   (1) The Centre can give directions to the states on how to use their executive power. (2) Parliament can make laws on State List subjects. (3) Article 19 freedoms are suspended if the emergency is due to war or external aggression, and the enforcement of other rights except Articles 20 and 21 can be suspended. (4) Parliament may extend the life of the Lok Sabha by a year at a time; the proclamation must be approved by both Houses within a month.

9. Q9 · 8 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

   [8] Compare the executives of India and the USA on method of election, type of executive, relation with the legislature, relation with the cabinet and role in financial matters.

   Hint

   E-T-L-C-F.

   Answer

   Election: the Indian President is elected indirectly by MPs and MLAs through STV, and the PM is the majority leader in the Lok Sabha; the US President is chosen through the Electoral College. Type: India has a nominal President and a real PM-led Council of Ministers; the USA has a single real executive. Legislature: Indian ministers are MPs responsible to the Lok Sabha, which the President can dissolve; the US President is separate from Congress, cannot dissolve it and is removable only by impeachment. Cabinet: the Indian President must act on ministerial advice; the US cabinet is the President's appointed advisers. Finance: Indian money bills need the President's recommendation and the Budget is presented in his name; the US President proposes a budget but Congress controls money, subject to his veto.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.Who elects the President of India?Show answer

   Elected members of both Houses of Parliament and of the state Legislative Assemblies (including Delhi and Puducherry).

2. 2.Which Article deals with President's rule in a state?Show answer

   Article 356.

3. 3.How many members does the President nominate to the Rajya Sabha?Show answer

   12.

4. 4.How many electoral votes are needed to win the US presidency?Show answer

   270 of 538.

5. 5.What is an executive agreement?Show answer

   An agreement made by the US President with a foreign government without Senate ratification.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Political executive: elected, temporary, partisan, policy-making. Permanent: appointed, till retirement, neutral, expert, implements.
• ☐President of India: indirect election, 5 years; executive (appointments, commander), legislative (summon, dissolve, assent, ordinances), emergency (352, 356, 360), discretionary (hung House, reconsideration, pocket veto).
• ☐PM: link (Article 78), forms Council, chairs Cabinet, leads Parliament and nation.
• ☐US President: Electoral College, 4 years, two terms; chief executive, appointments, Commander-in-Chief, treaties; veto (override 2/3), pocket veto, messages, special sessions.
• ☐Comparison: indirect vs Electoral College; nominal vs real; fused vs separated; bound by advice vs advised; Budget in his name vs proposes budget to Congress.

The Executive: frequently asked questions