Social Movements: Struggle against Caste and the Women's Question, ISC Class 11

What Social Movements is about

Weightage: CISCE gives no Class XI unit weightage for ISC History. Social Movements is topic 2 of the Class XI syllabus (Indian History) and can be asked anywhere in the 80-mark Paper I (Theory, 3 hours). Class XI is examined by the school, so your school sets the paper and decides how many marks each topic carries.Source: CISCE ISC History (851) syllabus, examination year 2028, Class XI

Key concepts

Jyotirao Phule

Jyotirao Phule (1827-1890) was born into the Mali (gardener) caste in Maharashtra.

Contributions
1. Education: in 1848, with his wife Savitribai Phule, he started a school for girls in Pune, one of the first run by Indians; he later opened schools for children of the 'untouchable' castes.
2. Critique of caste: he argued that the 'upper' castes had no right to their privileges and that caste was a system of domination created by Brahmins; he called for unity of all the lower castes (Shudras and Ati-Shudras).
3. Gulamgiri (Slavery), 1873: compared the condition of the lower castes with that of black slaves in America and dedicated the book to those who had fought slavery there.
4. Satyashodhak Samaj (Society of Seekers of Truth), founded 1873: worked for caste equality, performed ceremonies without Brahmin priests, and spread education.
5. Women: opposed child marriage, supported widow remarriage and opened a home where widows could give birth safely, to prevent infanticide.
6. Peasants: wrote about the exploitation of cultivators by moneylenders and officials.

Significance: a pioneer of the anti-caste movement who joined caste and gender equality.

Worked example

[4] Explain four contributions of Jyotirao Phule to the struggle against caste. (Recall)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Schools for girls (1848) and for lower-caste children - 1 mark.
2. Gulamgiri (1873) comparing caste with slavery - 1 mark.
3. Satyashodhak Samaj (1873) for equality; rites without priests - 1 mark.
4. Called for unity of Shudras and Ati-Shudras against caste domination - 1 mark.

Answer: Phule opened schools for girls and for lower-caste children, breaking the upper-caste hold on learning; his book Gulamgiri (1873) compared caste oppression to slavery; he founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (1873), which preached equality and conducted ceremonies without Brahmin priests; and he urged all the lower castes to unite against caste domination.

Sree Narayana Guru

Sree Narayana Guru (1856-1928) was born into the Ezhava community of Kerala, which was treated as 'polluting' and kept out of temples and schools.

Contributions
1. Aruvippuram (1888): he consecrated a Shiva idol himself, challenging the rule that only Brahmins could do so; this symbolic act opened worship to all.
2. Message of unity: 'one caste, one religion, one God for humankind'. He rejected caste distinctions among people.
3. Temples for all: he set up temples that were open to everyone, often with simple forms of worship and with schools attached.
4. SNDP Yogam (Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam), founded in 1903, organised the Ezhavas for education, employment and social reform.
5. Education and self-help: 'Enlighten through education, strengthen through organisation'; he encouraged industry, cleanliness and an end to costly ceremonies and alcohol.

Significance: he built self-respect among oppressed groups and influenced later struggles for temple entry in Kerala.

Worked example

[4] How did Sree Narayana Guru challenge caste in Kerala? (Understanding)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Consecrated a Shiva idol at Aruvippuram (1888), defying Brahmin monopoly - 1 mark.
2. Preached 'one caste, one religion, one God for humankind' - 1 mark.
3. Founded temples and schools open to all - 1 mark.
4. SNDP Yogam (1903) organised the Ezhavas for education and reform - 1 mark.

Answer: He consecrated a Shiva idol at Aruvippuram in 1888, breaking the Brahmin monopoly over worship; he preached 'one caste, one religion, one God for humankind'; he built temples and schools open to everyone; and through the SNDP Yogam, founded in 1903, he organised the Ezhavas for education, employment and reform.

Kandukuri Veerasalingam

Kandukuri Veerasalingam (1848-1919) of Rajahmundry is often called the father of the Telugu renaissance.

Contributions
1. Journalism: he started the journal Viveka Vardhini (1874) to attack corruption, superstition and social evils.
2. Women's education: he opened a school for girls (1874) and argued that educated women were essential to a reformed society.
3. Widow remarriage: he organised widow remarriages in Andhra from 1881, protecting couples against social boycott, and set up a home for widows.
4. Against caste and ritual privilege: he criticised the hereditary claims of priests, the caste system and superstition, and supported a casteless, rational religion (he was associated with the Brahmo movement).
5. Literature: he wrote in simple Telugu prose; his novel Rajasekhara Charitramu is regarded as the first Telugu novel.
6. He founded the Hitakarini Samaj to carry on his reform and educational work.

Significance: he linked social reform with modern Telugu literature and showed how the press could be used for reform.

Worked example

[4] Explain the contributions of Kandukuri Veerasalingam to social reform in Andhra. (Recall)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Viveka Vardhini (1874) against social evils and corruption - 1 mark.
2. School for girls; women's education - 1 mark.
3. Organised widow remarriages from 1881; widows' home - 1 mark.
4. Attacked caste privilege and superstition; Telugu prose and the first Telugu novel - 1 mark.

Answer: Veerasalingam used his journal Viveka Vardhini (1874) to attack corruption and social evils; he opened a school for girls and promoted women's education; he organised widow remarriages from 1881 and protected the couples; and he criticised caste privilege and superstition while creating modern Telugu prose, including what is regarded as the first Telugu novel.

Condition of women in nineteenth-century India

1. Sati: in some regions and communities, especially in Bengal, widows were burnt on their husbands' funeral pyres, often under pressure.
2. Child marriage: girls were married very young, sometimes before ten; early motherhood harmed health.
3. Enforced widowhood: upper-caste Hindu widows, even child widows, could not remarry and lived lives of hardship (shaved heads, plain dress, restricted food).
4. Female infanticide: in some communities in north and west India, infant girls were killed because of dowry costs and the wish to avoid marrying daughters 'below' their status.
5. Purdah and seclusion limited women's movement and public life in many communities.
6. Polygamy among some groups, and lack of property rights.
7. Illiteracy: very few girls received formal education.

Conditions varied by region, caste, class and religion; many practices were strongest among the upper castes. Reformers (Rammohun Roy, Vidyasagar, Phule, Malabari and others) campaigned for change, and the colonial state passed laws in response.

Worked example

[4] Describe four features of the condition of women in nineteenth-century India. (Recall)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Sati in some regions and communities - 1 mark.
2. Child marriage and early motherhood - 1 mark.
3. Ban on widow remarriage; harsh widowhood - 1 mark.
4. Female infanticide; purdah; illiteracy; no property rights - 1 mark.

Answer: Widows in some regions were pressed into sati; girls were married as children and became mothers too early; upper-caste widows, even children, were forbidden to remarry and lived hard, secluded lives; and girls faced infanticide in some communities, while purdah, illiteracy and lack of property rights kept most women dependent.

The four Acts: features and impact

1. Abolition of Sati (Bengal Regulation XVII, 1829)

• Passed by Governor-General Lord William Bentinck after a long campaign by Raja Rammohun Roy.
• Declared sati illegal; anyone assisting it could be punished for culpable homicide; extended to Madras and Bombay soon after.
• Impact: sati became rare; the law showed reform could come through legislation; orthodox groups appealed against it to the Privy Council and failed.

2. Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act (1856)

• Campaign led by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, who used the shastras to argue that remarriage was permitted.
• Passed under Lord Canning: made widow remarriage legal and the children of such marriages legitimate; a widow who remarried lost her rights in her late husband's property.
• Impact: few remarriages took place because of social boycott; but it gave legal backing to reformers such as Veerasalingam and Phule.

3. Female Infanticide Prevention Act (1870)

• Applied in areas where the government suspected the practice; made registration of births and deaths compulsory there, and allowed officials to supervise families and count girl children.
• Impact: helped reduce the practice where enforced, but enforcement was uneven and the underlying causes (dowry, status) remained.

4. Age of Consent Act (1891)

• Followed the death of an eleven-year-old child wife, Phulmoni, in Calcutta (1889) and a campaign by Behramji Malabari.
• Raised the age of consent for girls, married or unmarried, from 10 to 12 years; sexual intercourse with a girl below 12 was treated as rape.
• Opposed by orthodox leaders, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, as interference in religion.
• Impact: hard to enforce, but it opened a public debate on child marriage that led to the Child Marriage Restraint (Sarda) Act of 1929.

Worked example

[4] State the main features of the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act of 1856 and assess its impact. (Analysis)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Legalised the remarriage of Hindu widows; children legitimate - 1 mark.
2. Widow lost rights in her late husband's property on remarriage - 1 mark.
3. Result of Vidyasagar's campaign, passed under Canning - 1 mark.
4. Impact: few remarriages because of social boycott, but legal backing for reform - 1 mark.

Answer: The Act, the result of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's campaign, made the remarriage of Hindu widows legal and the children of such marriages legitimate, but a remarried widow lost her claim on her late husband's property. Its impact was limited: few widows remarried because families and caste groups boycotted them, yet it gave reformers legal protection and a cause around which to organise.

Social Movements in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• The Struggle against Caste: Phule, Sree Narayana Guru and Veerasalingam
• The Women's Question and the Four Reform Acts

Social Movements: key facts

Jyotirao Phule

Girls' school 1848; Gulamgiri and Satyashodhak Samaj 1873

Maharashtra; with Savitribai Phule.

Sree Narayana Guru

Aruvippuram 1888; SNDP Yogam 1903

Kerala; 'one caste, one religion, one God'.

Kandukuri Veerasalingam

Viveka Vardhini 1874; widow remarriages from 1881

Andhra; Rajahmundry; first Telugu novel.

Abolition of Sati

1829, Bentinck

Rammohun Roy's campaign.

Widow Remarriage Act

1856, Canning

Vidyasagar's campaign.

Infanticide and consent

Female Infanticide Prevention Act 1870; Age of Consent Act 1891 (10 to 12)

Malabari; Phulmoni case 1889; Tilak opposed.

How the school exam asks Social Movements

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember Social Movements

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• Acts in order: 'S-W-I-C' (1829-1856-1870-1891)

  Sati, Widows, Infanticide, Consent: 'She Was Increasingly Confident'.

  Use it when: Order and dates of the four Acts.

• Reformers by region: 'M-K-A'

  Phule Maharashtra, Narayana Guru Kerala, Veerasalingam Andhra.

  Use it when: Avoid mixing up the three reformers.

• Campaigner behind each Act

  Rammohun (sati), Vidyasagar (widows), Malabari (consent).

  Use it when: Explaining the background of an Act.

Social Movements: exam-level solved questions

Ordered from exam level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section D style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In a school exam set on the board pattern this is a 8-mark question split into 2 + 2 + 1 + 3 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in Social Movements

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Mixing up the reformers' organisations

  Satyashodhak Samaj and SNDP Yogam are learnt as a list without the reformer and region.

  Wrong working

  Narayana Guru founded the Satyashodhak Samaj.

  Right working

  Phule: Satyashodhak Samaj (1873); Narayana Guru: SNDP Yogam (1903).

  ✓Do this: Learn reformer-region-organisation as a set (M-K-A).

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Wrong age in the Age of Consent Act

  Students confuse it with later laws on child marriage.

  Wrong working

  Raised the age to 14.

  Right working

  From 10 to 12 (1891).

  ✓Do this: Remember 'ten to twelve in ninety-one'.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Giving only features of an Act when impact is asked

  The syllabus asks for impact on Indian women.

  ✓Do this: Add at least two effects, including limits.

  Usually costs: 2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Writing about Rammohun Roy's whole career for a sati question

  Biography crowds out the Act's features and impact.

  ✓Do this: One line on his campaign, then the Act and its results.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Calling the Widow Remarriage Act a complete success

  It ignores the social boycott and property loss that limited its use.

  ✓Do this: Say it was a legal milestone with limited immediate impact.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

Practice questions on Social Movements

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · Very short answerExam level

   Who wrote Gulamgiri?

   Hint

   1873.

   Answer

   Jyotirao Phule.

2. Q2 · 1 mark · Very short answerExam level

   Which Governor-General abolished sati in 1829?

   Hint

   Bengal Regulation XVII.

   Answer

   Lord William Bentinck.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · MCQExam level

   The Age of Consent Act of 1891 raised the age of consent for girls to:
   (a) 10 years
   (b) 12 years
   (c) 14 years
   (d) 16 years

   Hint

   Raised by two years.

   Answer

   (b) 12 years.

4. Q4 · 1 mark · Very short answerHarder exam level

   Where did Sree Narayana Guru consecrate a Shiva idol in 1888?

   Hint

   Kerala.

   Answer

   Aruvippuram.

5. Q5 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   [4] Explain the significance of the Satyashodhak Samaj.

   Hint

   Equality, rites, education, unity.

   Answer

   (1) Founded by Phule in 1873, it was one of the first organisations of the lower castes against caste domination. (2) It conducted ceremonies without Brahmin priests, challenging ritual dependence. (3) It spread education among the lower castes and women. (4) It built unity among the Shudras and Ati-Shudras and inspired later non-Brahmin movements in Maharashtra.

6. Q6 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   [4] Explain the role of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar in the passing of the Widow Remarriage Act.

   Hint

   Shastras, petitions, after the Act.

   Answer

   (1) He used the shastras to argue that widow remarriage was permitted. (2) He wrote and published widely on the subject. (3) He organised petitions to the government, which led to the Act of 1856. (4) After the Act he arranged and supported remarriages, though few took place.

7. Q7 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   [4] Why was the Female Infanticide Prevention Act of 1870 only partly successful?

   Hint

   Causes, enforcement.

   Answer

   (1) It applied only in areas where the government suspected the practice. (2) Registration and supervision depended on local officials and village record-keepers, so enforcement was uneven. (3) The causes, dowry costs and status concerns, were untouched. (4) Families could hide births or neglect girls instead, so the gap between boys and girls persisted.

8. Q8 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   [4] How did Veerasalingam use the press for social reform?

   Hint

   Viveka Vardhini.

   Answer

   (1) He started Viveka Vardhini in 1874. (2) He exposed corruption among officials and others. (3) He attacked superstition, caste privilege and evils such as the treatment of widows. (4) Writing in simple Telugu, he reached ordinary readers and built support for women's education and widow remarriage.

9. Q9 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   [4] 'The anti-caste reformers did more than the colonial laws to change Indian society.' Evaluate.

   Hint

   Self-respect, organisation; law's limits.

   Answer

   Largely valid for caste. (1) The colonial state passed no major law against caste in this period, so change came from reformers. (2) Phule and Narayana Guru built schools, temples and organisations that gave oppressed groups self-respect. (3) But laws on women's issues (sati, remarriage) provided legal backing that reformers alone could not. (4) Both were needed: laws set standards; reformers changed attitudes.

10. Q10 · 8 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

    [8] (a) Outline the contributions of Jyotirao Phule and Sree Narayana Guru. [4]
    (b) Explain the features and impact of the Acts of 1829 and 1856. [4]

    Hint

    Two points each in (a) and (b).

    Answer

    (a) Phule: schools for girls and lower castes from 1848; Gulamgiri and the Satyashodhak Samaj (1873). Narayana Guru: Aruvippuram consecration (1888) and 'one caste, one religion, one God'; SNDP Yogam (1903), temples and schools for all. (b) 1829: Bentinck's regulation made sati illegal and punishable as culpable homicide; the practice became rare. 1856: widow remarriage made legal, children legitimate, but property rights lost; few remarriages took place because of boycott.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.Who started a girls' school in Pune in 1848 with her husband?Show answer

   Savitribai Phule (with Jyotirao Phule).

2. 2.What was Sree Narayana Guru's message?Show answer

   One caste, one religion, one God for humankind.

3. 3.Which journal did Veerasalingam start in 1874?Show answer

   Viveka Vardhini.

4. 4.Whose campaign led to the Widow Remarriage Act?Show answer

   Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's.

5. 5.Which case of 1889 influenced the Age of Consent Act?Show answer

   The death of the child wife Phulmoni in Calcutta.

6. 6.What did the 1870 Act make compulsory in suspected areas?Show answer

   Registration of births and deaths, with supervision of families.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Phule: girls' school 1848; Gulamgiri and Satyashodhak Samaj 1873; unity of lower castes.
• ☐Narayana Guru: Aruvippuram 1888; one caste, one religion, one God; SNDP Yogam 1903.
• ☐Veerasalingam: Viveka Vardhini 1874; girls' school; widow remarriages from 1881; first Telugu novel.
• ☐Women: sati, child marriage, enforced widowhood, infanticide, purdah, illiteracy.
• ☐Sati abolished 1829 (Bentinck, Rammohun Roy); remarriage legal 1856 (Vidyasagar).
• ☐Infanticide Act 1870: registration in suspected areas; Consent Act 1891: 10 to 12; Tilak opposed.

Social Movements: frequently asked questions