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Mughals and Regional Powers Class 8 Notes | NCERT

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Social ScienceCBSE Class 8 · Reshaping India's Political Map

The Mughals, Regional Powers and Administration: Class 8 Notes and Questions

Updated 17 October 2026 · Fact-checked

The Mughal Empire began when Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat (1526). Akbar expanded and stabilised it with alliances, tolerance (sulh-i-kul) and the mansabdari system; Aurangzeb took it to its widest extent, but long wars in the Deccan drained it. Rajputs, Ahoms, Sikhs and others resisted, while administration and trade (hundi, guilds, temples) shaped people's lives.

Follow the arrow from Babur's win at Panipat (1526) through Akbar's long reign (orange) to Aurangzeb, when the empire was widest.

Illustration drawn for QuestionBuddy.

Understand The Mughals, Regional Powers and Administration

Babur (1526). A descendant of Timur, driven out of Samarkand, he defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat (1526) using gunpowder, field artillery and matchlock guns, ending the Delhi Sultanate and founding the Mughal Empire. He wrote the autobiography Baburnama; NCERT describes him as cultured and observant, and also as a ruthless conqueror. He found India 'a country of few charms' yet noted its gold and silver and its many artisans, and decided to stay. After his death in 1530 Humayun struggled; Sher Shah Suri set up the Sur Empire with lasting reforms. Himu, a minister, briefly held Delhi but lost the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) to Akbar.

Akbar (1556-1605). Declared emperor at 13. Early conquests were harsh (NCERT describes the siege of Chittor, which lasted over five months, and the practice of jauhar by Rajput women). Later he used politics to stabilise the empire: marriage alliances, welcoming Rajput and regional leaders to court, abolishing the jizya, and promoting sulh-i-kul ('peace with all'). He held interfaith dialogues, appointed Hindu officials to high posts and set up a house of translation at Fatehpur Sikri for Sanskrit texts into Persian (the Mahabharata as Razmnama, the Ramayana, the Bhagavad Gita, the Panchatantra). NCERT notes that non-Muslims rarely exceeded one-third of officials. His reign ran almost 50 years, and the last 15 years brought fresh campaigns in Kashmir, Sindh, the Deccan and Afghanistan.

After Akbar. Jahangir loved art and tried to expand into the Deccan; Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal and the period saw the peak of architecture (Humayun's tomb, the Red Forts of Delhi and Agra), miniature painting and calligraphy.

Aurangzeb (crowned 1658, ruled almost 49 years). After a violent succession struggle he imprisoned his father in Agra Fort. He took the empire to its greatest extent and spent the last 25 years fighting in the Deccan; NCERT lists the strain on the treasury and administration among the key reasons for the rapid decline of Mughal power after his death in 1707. He reimposed the jizya and a pilgrimage tax on Hindus, which Akbar had abolished, and NCERT cites his 1669 farman and the destruction of temples and persecution of some groups. Some scholars see his motives as mainly political, citing grants to some temples; NCERT says his own edicts also show a personal religious motive.

Regional resistance.

  • Peasants and tribes: the Jat peasantry rebelled in the 17th century; Bhils, Gonds, Santhals and Kochs resisted annexation and taxes. Rani Durgavati of the Garha (Gond) kingdom repelled invasions and fought a general sent by Akbar in 1564 (she was about 40).
  • Rajputs: Mewar and Marwar clans rebuilt kingdoms. Rana Sanga united several clans and lost to Babur at Khanwa. Maharana Pratap refused Mughal suzerainty; at Haldighati (1576) the Mughals had the upper hand, but he escaped and waged guerrilla warfare from the Aravallis with support of the Bhils. Durga Das Rathore defended Jodhpur's independence under Aurangzeb.
  • Ahoms: migrated from present Myanmar in the 13th century to the Brahmaputra Valley. Their paik system required every able-bodied man to give labour or military service in return for land rights. At the Battle of Saraighat (1671) near Guwahati, Lachit Borphukan with 10,000 men defeated a Mughal force of 30,000, and the Ahoms kept their independence.
  • Sikhs: Guru Nanak taught equality, compassion and the oneness of God. NCERT records that Jahangir had Guru Arjan tortured to death for supporting his rebellious son; Guru Hargobind then began martial training and formed a Sikh army. Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed in 1675 after standing with persecuted Kashmiri Pandits; his son Guru Gobind Singh formed the Khalsa. Later Maharaja Ranjit Singh unified Sikh confederacies into a centralised Sikh Empire (NCERT timeline: 1799) in the northwest.

Administration.

  • Delhi Sultanate: a sultan with absolute authority, assisted by ministers; the iqta system gave territories to nobles (iqtadars) to collect taxes for the army; posts were not hereditary.
  • Mughal (Akbar): Diwan (finance), Mir Bakhshi (military), Khan-i-Saman (public works, trade, industry, agriculture and the household), Sadr (justice, religious and educational matters); 12 subahs; village self-governance largely continued.
  • Mansabdari: officers held a rank (mansab) and had to maintain a set number of troops, elephants, horses and camels, so an army could be raised quickly without a permanent one; paid by land assignments (jagirs), so also called jagirdars.
  • Todar Mal: crop-yield and price surveys and a systematic land survey to improve revenue.

People's lives. Agriculture was the mainstay; land revenue was usually about one-fifth of the produce, sometimes up to one-half. Crops included rice, wheat, pulses, sugarcane and cotton. Trade flourished through ports such as Calicut, Mangalore, Surat, Masulipatnam and Hooghly; India exported more than it imported. Shrenis (guilds), jatis and the hundi (a written payment instruction) supported commerce, and temples acted as centres of economic activity. By the late 1600s, NCERT notes economic stress for peasants, but communities generally lived side by side.

The Mughals, Regional Powers and Administration: key facts

Mughal rulers (in order)
  • Babur 1526
  • Humayun
  • Akbar 1556
  • Jahangir
  • Shah Jahan
  • Aurangzeb 1658
Sur interval under Sher Shah Suri.
Akbar's measures
  • Marriage alliances
  • Rajputs and Hindus at court
  • jizya abolished
  • sulh-i-kul
  • mansabdari
  • Todar Mal's revenue survey
Political strategy rather than only force.
Mughal ministers (Akbar)
Diwanfinance
Mir Bakhshimilitary
Khan-i-Samanpublic works and household
Sadrjustice and religion
12 subahs
Checks and balances.
Key battles
  • Panipat I 1526
  • Panipat II 1556
  • Haldighati 1576
  • Saraighat 1671
  • Talikota 1565
Date to place and to side.
Ahom victory
  • Saraighat 1671
  • Lachit Borphukan 10,000 men
  • Mughal force 30,000
  • paik system
Geography and guerrilla tactics.

How to answer The Mughals, Regional Powers and Administration questions

Questions ask for features of a ruler's policy, how the empire was administered, why a power could resist, and a comparison (Sultanate versus Mughal, Akbar versus Aurangzeb).

  1. 1For a ruler, give dates, key policies and one consequence.
  2. 2For comparisons, use two columns: policy, administration, treatment of faiths, military strategy.
  3. 3For resistance, name the people, place, leader, tactic and result.
  4. 4For administration, name the post, its function and the method of payment or checks.
  5. 5Treat sensitive episodes factually and say 'NCERT records that'; do not generalise to a whole community today.

The Mughals, Regional Powers and Administration in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Mansabdari

Suppose a city's fire brigade does not keep a large permanent crew. Instead, each of fifty local clubs promises to keep a fixed number of trained volunteers and equipment ready, and the city pays them with a fixed share of local taxes.

How does this resemble the mansabdari system, and what advantage does it give?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Each club has a rank-like obligation to keep a set number of people and equipment.
  2. Payment comes by assignment of revenue, like jagirs.
  3. A force can be assembled quickly without a costly permanent body.

Answer: It resembles mansabdari, where officers of a given rank had to maintain a fixed number of troops, elephants, horses and camels and were paid through land assignments, so an army could be assembled at short notice without a permanent one. The advantage is lower standing cost with readiness when needed.

Memory hook: Rank brings a duty to keep a force ready.

Using geography in defence

Suppose a smaller team defends a river island against a bigger team that has more boats but does not know the currents or channels.

Explain how this resembles the Ahom victory at Saraighat.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Local knowledge of rivers and terrain offsets numbers.
  2. Hit-and-run and guerrilla tactics make a larger force less effective.

Answer: At Saraighat in 1671 the Ahoms, with about 10,000 men, defeated a Mughal force of 30,000 on the Brahmaputra, using their knowledge of dense forests, hills and rivers and persistent guerrilla tactics, even though the Mughals had more men and a larger boat fleet.

Memory hook: Know the ground; then numbers matter less.

Tricks to remember The Mughals, Regional Powers and Administration

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

  • Mansabdar duty

    Rank = Men + Mounts: troops, elephants, horses and camels, paid by Jagir.

    Use it when: Mansabdari system.

  • D-M-K-S

    Diwan (money), Mir Bakhshi (military), Khan-i-Saman (works and household), Sadr (justice).

    Use it when: Akbar's ministers.

  • Panipat years

    1526 Babur, 1556 Akbar: thirty years apart.

    Use it when: Two Battles of Panipat.

The Mughals, Regional Powers and Administration: solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Who fought at Saraighat? · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

The Battle of Saraighat (1671) was fought between the Mughals and the:
(a) Marathas
(b) Ahoms
(c) Rajputs
(d) Sikhs

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Lachit Borphukan's Ahom force defeated the Mughals on the Brahmaputra (1 mark).

Answer: (b) Ahoms

Example 2: Akbar's policies (3 marks) · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

List three steps Akbar took to stabilise his empire and explain the idea of sulh-i-kul. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Any two of: marriage alliances, welcoming Rajput and regional leaders to court, abolishing the jizya, appointing Hindu officials, interfaith dialogue (2 marks for steps).
  2. Sulh-i-kul literally means peace with all, tolerance of all faiths (1 mark).

Answer: Akbar entered marriage alliances with neighbouring princesses, welcomed Rajput and regional leaders into his court and abolished the jizya; he also held interfaith dialogues and gave high posts to Hindu officials. Sulh-i-kul, literally 'peace with all', was his doctrine of tolerance of all faiths.

Example 3: Assertion-reason: Aurangzeb's wars · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

Assertion (A): The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after Aurangzeb's death in 1707.
Reason (R): Keeping large armies in the Deccan for the last 25 years of his life drained the treasury and strained the administration.
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. NCERT lists this strain as one of the key factors in the decline; R explains A (1 mark).

Answer: (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

Example 4: Mansabdari and revenue (5 marks) · 5 marks · Long answerHarder board level

Explain the mansabdari system and the revenue reforms of Todar Mal, and say how together they strengthened the Mughal state. (5 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Mansabdars held a rank (mansab) and had to maintain a set number of troops, elephants, horses and camels (1 mark).
  2. They were paid with land assignments (jagirs); inspections checked compliance (1 mark).
  3. An army could be assembled at short notice without a permanent army (1 mark).
  4. Todar Mal made detailed surveys of crop yields and prices and fixed crop prices; he began a systematic land survey (1 mark).
  5. This boosted revenue collection and strengthened the state apparatus (1 mark).

Answer: Under the mansabdari system, officers were given a rank (mansab) and had to maintain a precise number of troops, elephants, horses and camels for the state; they were generally paid through land assignments called jagirs, and regular inspections ensured compliance. This allowed an army to be assembled quickly without maintaining a permanent centralised army. Alongside this, Akbar's finance minister Todar Mal made detailed surveys of crop yields and prices, fixed prices for each crop on that basis and began a systematic land survey of the empire. These measures raised revenue and strengthened the state.

Example 5: Case: Saraighat and Ram Singh's praise · 4 marks · Case-basedHOTS / competency

Read the case and answer.

NCERT records that when Aurangzeb sent Mughal forces, they briefly captured the Ahom capital Garhgaon, but the Ahoms used dense forests, hills and rivers and persistent guerrilla tactics to repulse them. At Saraighat, near present-day Guwahati, the Ahom commander Lachit Borphukan and 10,000 men defeated a force of 30,000. The Mughal general Ram Singh wrote that every Assamese soldier was expert in rowing boats, shooting arrows, digging trenches and handling guns and cannons.

(i) Name the river on which the battle took place. (1)
(ii) How did the Ahoms offset the Mughals' advantage in numbers? (1)
(iii) What does the paik system tell us about how the Ahoms maintained a force without a permanent army? (2)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. (i) The Brahmaputra (1 mark).
  2. (ii) Knowledge of terrain and guerrilla tactics (1 mark).
  3. (iii) Every able-bodied man had to give labour or military service to the state in exchange for land rights, so the state could build infrastructure and keep a large standing force without a permanent army (2 marks).

Answer: (i) The Brahmaputra. (ii) They used their knowledge of the terrain and guerrilla tactics. (iii) Under the paik system every able-bodied man owed labour or military duty in exchange for land rights, so the rulers could create public infrastructure and field a large force without a permanent army.

Where students lose marks in The Mughals, Regional Powers and Administration

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

  • Mistake: Mixing the two Battles of Panipat

    Same place, different years.

    Wrong working

    Akbar won the First Battle of Panipat (1556).

    Right working

    First (1526): Babur beat Ibrahim Lodi. Second (1556): Akbar's side beat Himu.

    Do this: Link 1526 to Babur and 1556 to Akbar.

    Usually costs: 1 mark.

  • Mistake: Describing mansabdars as paid in cash

    Assumed salary.

    Wrong working

    Mansabdars received a monthly cash salary.

    Right working

    They were generally paid by land assignments (jagirs).

    Do this: Write 'jagir' next to mansab.

    Usually costs: 1 mark.

  • Mistake: One-sided judgement of a ruler

    Ignoring the textbook's balance.

    Wrong working

    Akbar was entirely tolerant; Aurangzeb was only cruel.

    Right working

    NCERT shows Akbar's early harshness and later tolerance, and scholars' differing views about Aurangzeb's motives.

    Do this: Give both sides with evidence.

    Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

Exam tips

  • Write dates beside each battle: 1526, 1556, 1565, 1576, 1671.
  • Describe Akbar's change over time: early conquests were harsh, later policy used alliances and tolerance.
  • For administration, give the minister, the subject and the payment method in one line each.
  • Use neutral verbs such as 'NCERT records' and avoid describing any present-day community as responsible.

Practice questions on The Mughals, Regional Powers and Administration

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

  1. Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

    The First Battle of Panipat (1526) was won by Babur against:
    (a) Hemu
    (b) Ibrahim Lodi
    (c) Rana Sanga
    (d) Sher Shah Suri

    Hint

    It ended the Delhi Sultanate.

    Answer

    (b) Ibrahim Lodi

  2. Q2 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

    What was the iqta system? (2 marks)

    Hint

    Territories assigned to nobles.

    Answer

    Under the iqta system territories were assigned to nobles called iqtadars, who collected taxes and, after expenses, sent the rest to the Sultan's treasury; the revenue was needed to maintain the army. Their posts were not hereditary.

  3. Q3 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

    Distinguish between Akbar's and Aurangzeb's policies towards non-Muslims as recorded by NCERT. (3 marks)

    Hint

    Jizya, pilgrimage tax, sulh-i-kul, farmans.

    Answer

    Akbar abolished the jizya and a pilgrimage tax, promoted sulh-i-kul (tolerance of all faiths) and appointed Hindu officials. Aurangzeb, who was deeply religious, reimposed the jizya and the pilgrimage tax on Hindus and, according to NCERT's reading of his farmans, ordered the demolition of temples and schools. Some scholars stress political motives and point to his grants to some temples.

  4. Q4 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

    Assertion (A): Maharana Pratap continued resistance after the Battle of Haldighati.
    Reason (R): He used guerrilla warfare from the Aravalli hills with support from the Bhils.
    (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
    (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
    (c) A is true, but R is false.
    (d) A is false, but R is true.

    Hint

    How could he continue?

    Answer

    (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

  5. Q5 · 5 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

    Using the chapter, explain why the Ahom kingdom and the Vijayanagara Empire resisted conquest for long, and name one geographic and one social factor for each. (5 marks)

    Hint

    Terrain, paik system; Hampi site, strong rulers and grants, wealth.

    Answer

    Ahom kingdom: Geographic factor: the dense forests, hills and rivers of the Brahmaputra valley helped their guerrilla tactics. Social factor: the paik system, under which every able-bodied man gave labour or military service in return for land rights, gave them a large force without a permanent army. At Saraighat (1671) they defeated a larger Mughal force.

    Vijayanagara Empire: Geographic factor: its capital Hampi, in the rocky Tungabhadra region, was naturally defensible. Social factor: the wealth, trade and grants to temples tied society to the state. Vijayanagara was founded by governors who had broken with Delhi and rose to dominance under Krishnadevaraya. It resisted Delhi and rival sultanates for long, but fell when the Deccan Sultanates united at Talikota in 1565.

    Thus terrain, a mobilised society and capable leadership explain long resistance, while unity among rivals could end it.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

  1. 1.What does sulh-i-kul mean?Show answer

    Peace with all; tolerance of all faiths.

  2. 2.How many subahs did Akbar's empire have?Show answer

    Twelve.

  3. 3.Who led the Ahoms at Saraighat?Show answer

    Lachit Borphukan.

  4. 4.Who formed the Khalsa?Show answer

    Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru.

  5. 5.What was a hundi?Show answer

    A written instruction to make a payment that could be carried across political borders.

The Mughals, Regional Powers and Administration: frequently asked questions

What was the mansabdari system?

Akbar's system in which officers held ranks (mansabs) and kept a set number of troops and animals for the state, usually paid by land assignments called jagirs.

Why did the Mughal Empire decline after Aurangzeb?

NCERT names, among other factors, the strain of his long Deccan wars on the treasury and administration, along with rebellions.

What was the paik system?

The Ahom system in which every able-bodied man served the state through labour or military duty in return for land rights.