Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition (India), Class 12

What Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition is about

Weightage: India: People and Economy, Unit I: People carries 5 of the 70 theory marks.Source: CBSE Geography (029) syllabus 2026-27, course structure

Key concepts

Distribution of population

NCERT section Distribution of Population

India has a highly uneven distribution.

• Uttar Pradesh has the largest population, followed by Maharashtra, Bihar and West Bengal.
• UP, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Gujarat together hold about 76 per cent of the population.
• Large states with small shares: Jammu & Kashmir (1.04%), Arunachal Pradesh (0.11%), Uttarakhand (0.84%).

Physical factors: climate, terrain and water availability largely decide distribution: the North Indian Plains, deltas and coastal plains have more people than the interior districts of southern and central states, the Himalayas, some north-eastern and western states. But irrigation (Rajasthan), minerals and energy (Jharkhand) and transport (Peninsular states) have raised concentration in once-thin areas.

Socio-economic and historical factors: evolution of settled agriculture, pattern of human settlement, transport, industrialisation and urbanisation. River plains and coasts stay crowded because of early settlement history and transport, even where land and water are degrading. Cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai and Jaipur attract rural-urban migrants through industry and urbanisation.

Worked example

Explain the role of physical factors in the distribution of India's population. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Climate, terrain and availability of water largely determine where people live.
2. So the North Indian Plains, deltas and coastal plains have high populations, while the Himalayas, interior southern and central districts and some north-eastern and western states have fewer people.
3. Human efforts like irrigation in Rajasthan, minerals in Jharkhand and transport in Peninsular states have raised populations in once thinly peopled areas.

Answer: Favourable climate, flat terrain and water concentrate people; harsh areas stay sparse unless irrigation, minerals or transport change them.

Density of population

NCERT section Density of Population

Density = number of persons per unit area; it shows population in relation to land.

• India's density (2011) is 382 persons per sq km, up from 117 in 1951: an increase of over 200 in 50 years.
• Range: from 17 per sq km in Arunachal Pradesh (lowest) to 11,297 in the NCT of Delhi.
• High among northern states: Bihar (1102), West Bengal (1029), Uttar Pradesh (828); among peninsular states, Kerala (859) and Tamil Nadu (555).
• Moderate: Assam, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Jharkhand, Odisha.
• Low: Himalayan hill states and north-eastern states (except Assam).
• Very high: Union Territories (except Andaman and Nicobar Islands).

Better measures: arithmetic density is a crude measure of human-land relationship. For a largely agricultural country, use:

• Physiological density: divide the total population by the net cultivated area.
• Agricultural density: divide the agricultural population (cultivators and agricultural labourers with their families) by the net cultivable area.

Worked example

Distinguish between physiological density and agricultural density. Why are they useful for India? (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Physiological density = total population / net cultivated area.
2. Agricultural density = total agricultural population (cultivators, labourers and their families) / net cultivable area.
3. Arithmetic density is crude; these measures show the pressure of population on cultivable land, important for India with its large agricultural population.

Answer: Both relate people to farmland rather than total land, showing real pressure on agriculture.

Growth of population and its four phases

NCERT section Growth of Population

Growth is the change in the number of people in an area between two points of time, expressed in percentage. Two components: natural (birth and death rates) and induced (in- and out-migration); this chapter discusses natural growth.

• Decadal growth rate g = (p2 - p1) / p1 x 100, where p1 is the base-year and p2 the present-year population.
• Annual growth rate: 1.64 per cent (2011).
• Doubling time: time a population takes to double at its current annual growth rate.

Four phases (Table 1.1):
1. Phase I (1901-1921): stagnant/stationary. Very low growth, even negative in 1911-1921 (-0.31%). Both birth and death rates high due to poor health services, illiteracy and inefficient distribution of food and necessities.
2. Phase II (1921-1951): steady growth. Better health and sanitation cut mortality; better transport and communication improved distribution; birth rate stayed high, so growth was higher, impressive despite the Great Depression and World War II.
3. Phase III (1951-1981): population explosion. Rapid fall in mortality with high fertility; average annual growth 2.2 per cent. Planned development improved living conditions; international migration (Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepalis, people from Pakistan) added to growth.
4. Phase IV (post-1981): slowing growth. Still high but gradually slowing due to a falling birth rate, affected by higher mean age at marriage, better quality of life and female education.

• The World Development Report projected India's population at 1,350 million by 2025.

Table 1.1 highlights: 1901: 238.4 million; 1951: 361.1 million (13.31%); 1971: 548.2 million (24.80%, the peak); 2011: 1,210.2 million (17.64%).

Worked example

Describe the four phases of population growth in India since 1901. (5 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Phase I (1901-1921): stagnant; high birth and death rates due to poor health, illiteracy and weak food distribution; negative growth in 1911-21.
2. Phase II (1921-1951): steady growth as health, sanitation, transport and communication improved, reducing deaths while births stayed high.
3. Phase III (1951-1981): population explosion; mortality fell rapidly, fertility stayed high; annual growth about 2.2 per cent; planning improved living conditions; migrants added to growth.
4. Phase IV (after 1981): growth high but slowing due to a falling birth rate, higher age at marriage and female education.
5. Overall, India's population rose from about 238 million (1901) to 1,210 million (2011), with decadal growth peaking at 24.80 per cent in 1971.

Answer: Stagnant, steady, explosive, then slowing growth, driven by changes in death and birth rates.

Regional variation in growth and adolescents

NCERT section Regional Variation in Population Growth

1991-2001:

• Low growth (not exceeding 20%): Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Puducherry and Goa; Kerala had the lowest (9.4) in the country.
• Higher growth (20-25%): a continuous west-to-east belt in the north-west, north and north-central parts: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, UP, Uttarakhand, MP, Sikkim, Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand.

2001-2011: growth fell in almost all states. Among the six most populous (UP, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, MP), the fall was smallest for Andhra Pradesh (3.5 points) and largest for Maharashtra (6.7 points); Tamil Nadu (3.9 points) and Puducherry (7.1 points) recorded some increase.

Adolescents (10-19 years): about 20.9 per cent of the population (2011); 52.7 per cent male, 47.3 per cent female. Youthful with high potential but vulnerable. Challenges: low age at marriage, female illiteracy, school dropouts, low nutrition, high maternal mortality of adolescent mothers, HIV/AIDS, disability, drug abuse and alcoholism, juvenile delinquency.

Policies:

• National Youth Policy (NYP-2014), launched February 2014: vision to empower youth to achieve their full potential and help India find its rightful place among nations; defines youth as 15-29 years.
• National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (2015): umbrella framework aligning skilling to common standards and linking it to demand centres.

Worked example

What challenges do adolescents in India face, and what policies address them? (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Adolescents (10-19 years) are about 20.9 per cent of India's population (2011): high potential but vulnerable.
2. Challenges include low age at marriage, female illiteracy, school dropouts, poor nutrition, maternal mortality of adolescent mothers, HIV/AIDS, drug abuse and juvenile delinquency.
3. Policies: National Youth Policy 2014 (youth = 15-29 years, aiming to empower youth) and the National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship 2015.

Answer: Health, education and social risks, addressed by the NYP 2014 and the 2015 skill policy.

Rural-urban composition

NCERT section Population Composition: Rural-Urban Composition

Population composition studies age and sex, residence, ethnicity, tribes, language, religion, marital status, literacy and education, and occupation. This chapter covers rural-urban, linguistic, religious and occupational composition.

Rural population: about 68.8 per cent lived in villages (2011). India has 640,867 villages, of which 597,608 (93.2%) are inhabited.

• High rural share: Himachal Pradesh and Bihar; Goa and Mizoram have only a little over half rural.
• UTs have smaller rural shares, except Dadra and Nagar Haveli (53.38%).
• Village size: under 200 persons in north-eastern hill states, western Rajasthan and Rann of Kachchh; up to 17,000 in Kerala and parts of Maharashtra.
• Urbanisation and rural-urban migration regulate rural concentration.

Urban population: 31.16 per cent, low but growing faster, due to economic development and better health and hygiene.

• Urban growth shows both urban development and rural-urban migration, conspicuous along road and rail links in the North Indian Plains and industrial areas around Kolkata, Mumbai, Bengaluru-Mysuru, Madurai-Coimbatore, Ahmedabad-Surat, Delhi-Kanpur, Ludhiana-Jalandhar.
• Low urbanisation: agriculturally stagnant middle and lower Ganga plains, Telangana, non-irrigated western Rajasthan, remote hilly and tribal north-east, flood-prone Peninsular areas and eastern MP.

Worked example

Which states have a large rural population? Give one reason. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. About 68.8 per cent of India's population lived in villages in 2011.
2. Himachal Pradesh and Bihar have very high percentages of rural population.
3. Reason: lower levels of urbanisation and agricultural dependence; the degree of urbanisation and rural-urban migration regulate rural concentration.

Answer: Himachal Pradesh and Bihar, due to low urbanisation and dependence on agriculture.

Linguistic and religious composition

NCERT section Linguistic Composition; Religious Composition

Linguistic composition: India is a land of linguistic diversity. Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India (1903-1928) recorded 179 languages and 544 dialects. Today there are about 22 scheduled languages and many non-scheduled ones.

• Hindi speakers have the highest share; Sanskrit, Bodo and Manipuri are the smallest groups (2011).
• Linguistic regions merge and overlap in frontier zones rather than having sharp boundaries.
• Four language families (Table 1.2): Indo-European (Aryan) about 73%; Dravidian (Dravida) about 20%; Austric (Nishada) 1.38%; Sino-Tibetan (Kirata) 0.85%. E.g. Mon-Khmer (Austric) in Meghalaya and Nicobar Islands; South Dravidian in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala.

Religious composition (Table 1.3, 2011): Hindus 79.8%, Muslims 14.2%, Christians 2.3%, Sikhs 1.7%, Buddhists 0.7%, Jains 0.4%, other religions 0.7%, not stated 0.2%.

• Hindus: a major group (70-90% and above) in many states, except districts along the Indo-Bangladesh and Indo-Pak borders, J&K, north-eastern hill states and scattered parts of the Deccan and Ganga Plain.
• Muslims (largest minority): J&K, parts of West Bengal and Kerala, many UP districts, around Delhi, Lakshadweep; majority in the Kashmir valley and Lakshadweep.
• Christians: mostly rural; western coast (Goa, Kerala), Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Chotanagpur, Manipur hills.
• Sikhs: Punjab, Haryana, Delhi.
• Jains: urban Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra. Buddhists: mostly Maharashtra; also Sikkim, Arunachal, Ladakh, Tripura, Lahul and Spiti.
• Religion and landscape: sacred structures, cemeteries, groves and plants and animals for religious purposes shape the landscape.

Worked example

Name the four language families of India with their approximate shares. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Indo-European (Aryan): about 73 per cent; Dravidian (Dravida): about 20 per cent.
2. Austric (Nishada): 1.38 per cent; Sino-Tibetan (Kirata): 0.85 per cent.
3. The Indo-Aryan branch is the largest linguistic group; linguistic regions overlap at their frontiers.

Answer: Indo-European 73%, Dravidian 20%, Austric 1.38%, Sino-Tibetan 0.85%.

Composition of working population and Beti Bachao-Beti Padhao

NCERT section Composition of Working Population; Promoting Gender Sensitivity

Three groups by economic status: main workers (work at least 183 days, six months, a year), marginal workers (less than 183 days) and non-workers.

• Workers are only 39.8 per cent (2011); about 60 per cent are non-workers, indicating a large dependent population and possible unemployment or underemployment.
• Work participation rate varies from about 29.1% (Lakshadweep) to 51.9% (Himachal Pradesh); high in Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Arunachal, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya; among UTs, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. It tends to be higher in less developed areas, where many manual workers are needed for subsistence activities.

Occupational categories (Census 2011): cultivators, agricultural labourers, household industrial workers, other workers.

• Primary 54.6%, household industry (secondary) 3.8%, other workers (tertiary) 41.6% (Table 1.4). Male workers outnumber females in all sectors; female workers are relatively high in the primary sector, improving in secondary and tertiary.
• Agricultural share fell from 58.2% (2001) to 54.6% (2011): a shift from farm to non-farm work.
• Spatial variation: large shares of cultivators in Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland; agricultural labourers in Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal, MP; other services in Delhi, Chandigarh and Puducherry (limited farmland, urbanisation, industry).

Beti Bachao-Beti Padhao: social roles turn biological differences into discrimination and exclusion. UNDP's HDR 1995 said, 'If development is not engendered it is endangered.' Gender discrimination is a crime against humanity; denial of education, jobs, representation and equal wages must be addressed. The Government launched the nationwide Beti Bachao-Beti Padhao campaign.

Worked example

Why do some states have higher work participation rates than others? (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Work participation varies from about 29.1 per cent in Lakshadweep to 51.9 per cent in Himachal Pradesh.
2. It tends to be higher in areas with lower economic development, where many manual workers are needed for subsistence or near-subsistence activities.
3. States like Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Nagaland and Meghalaya show higher rates, while urbanised areas with more non-workers show lower rates.

Answer: Less developed, subsistence-based economies need more manual workers, raising participation.

Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• Distribution and Density of Population in India
• Phases of Population Growth in India
• Population Composition and Working Population

Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition: key facts

India's population

1,210 million (2011); second after China; census every 10 years (first 1872, first complete 1881)

UP largest, then Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal.

Density

382 per sq km (2011); 117 (1951); lowest Arunachal 17; NCT Delhi 11,297; Bihar 1,102 highest state

Map item: highest and lowest density states.

Other densities

$Physiological=population/netcultivatedarea;Agricultural=agriculturalpopulation/netcultivablearea$

Arithmetic density is crude.

Decadal growth

$g=(p2-p1)/p1x100$

Annual growth 1.64% (2011).

Four phases

$1901-21stagnant;1921-51steady;1951-81explosion(2.2$

Peak decadal growth 24.80% (1961-71).

Regional growth

1991-2001: south low (Kerala 9.4 lowest); north belt 20-25%; 2001-11: falls almost everywhere

Maharashtra largest fall (6.7 points).

Adolescents and policies

$10-19years=20.9$

Vulnerabilities listed in text.

Rural-urban

$Rural68.8$

Urban grows faster.

Languages

$Grierson:179languages,544dialects;22scheduled;Indo-European73$

Hindi largest; Sanskrit, Bodo, Manipuri smallest.

Religion (2011)

$Hindus79.8,Muslims14.2,Christians2.3,Sikhs1.7,Buddhists0.7,Jains0.4($

Muslim majority in Kashmir valley, Lakshadweep.

Workforce

$Workers39.8$

Agriculture share 58.2% (2001) to 54.6% (2011).

Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition: map work

The places on the official CBSE map list for this chapter. Find each one on an outline map of India and practise marking it.

How the board asks Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• Phases

  "Stop, Steady, Shoot up, Slow down" (1901-21, 21-51, 51-81, post-81).

  Use it when: Four phases.

• Density extremes

  "17 Arunachal, 1102 Bihar, 11,297 Delhi".

  Use it when: Map and MCQs.

• Language families

  "73-20-1.38-0.85": Aryan, Dravidian, Austric, Sino-Tibetan.

  Use it when: Language shares.

• Workforce

  "55-4-41" (54.6 primary, 3.8 secondary, 41.6 tertiary).

  Use it when: Occupational shares.

Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition: board-level solved questions

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section E style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In the board paper this is a 3-mark question split into 1 + 1 + 1 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Naming Delhi as the state with the highest density

  Delhi has the highest overall.

  ✓Do this: NCT Delhi (11,297) is a Union Territory; among states Bihar (1102) is highest.

  Usually costs: 1 mark in map questions.

• ✗Mistake: Mixing up the order of phases

  Four similar phases.

  ✓Do this: Stagnant (1901-21), steady (1921-51), explosion (1951-81), slowing (post-1981).

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Confusing physiological and agricultural density

  Similar formulas.

  ✓Do this: Physiological: total population / net cultivated area; agricultural: agricultural population / net cultivable area.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Writing about migration in detail

  Older syllabus.

  ✓Do this: Migration is school-only reading in 2026-27.

  Usually costs: Relevance.

NCERT exercise guide: Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition

What each exercise in the NCERT chapter tests, how to approach it, and a question of the same kind solved step by step. Questions here are written in our own words.

Practice questions on Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

   Which is the largest linguistic group of India?
   (a) Sino-Tibetan
   (b) Indo-Aryan
   (c) Austric
   (d) Dravidian

   Hint

   73 per cent.

   Answer

   (b).

2. Q2 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

   The first complete census in India was conducted in:
   (a) 1872
   (b) 1881
   (c) 1901
   (d) 1951

   Hint

   First census 1872.

   Answer

   (b).

3. Q3 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

   Assertion (A): Work participation rates tend to be higher in less developed areas of India.
   Reason (R): Many manual workers are needed to perform subsistence or near-subsistence activities there.
   Choose (a)-(d).

   Hint

   Subsistence economy.

   Answer

   (a) Both are true and R explains A.

4. Q4 · 1 mark · MCQHarder board level

   Which state had the lowest decadal growth rate in 1991-2001?
   (a) Tamil Nadu
   (b) Kerala
   (c) Goa
   (d) Punjab

   Hint

   9.4 per cent.

   Answer

   (b).

5. Q5 · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level

   'The agricultural sector has the largest share of Indian workers.' Explain. (3 marks)

   Hint

   54.6 per cent.

   Answer

   About 54.6 per cent of workers (2011) are cultivators and agricultural labourers, compared with 3.8 per cent in household industry and 41.6 per cent in other work. This reflects India's large rural population (68.8 per cent) and limited non-farm jobs in many states. However, the share has fallen from 58.2 per cent in 2001, showing a gradual shift to non-farm sectors.

6. Q6 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   Suppose a hill district has a large area but few people, while a delta district of the same size is crowded. Using the chapter, explain the difference and suggest how the hill district's population could grow. (3 marks)

   Hint

   Physical vs human factors.

   Answer

   Climate, terrain and water decide distribution: the delta's flat land, fertile soil and water support dense farming and early settlement, while rugged hills hinder farming and transport. The hill district could gain population through human factors the chapter mentions: irrigation (as in Rajasthan), development of mineral and energy resources (as in Jharkhand) and better transport networks (as in Peninsular states).

7. Q7 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

   Why is the adolescent population both an asset and a challenge? (3 marks)

   Hint

   Potential vs vulnerability.

   Answer

   Adolescents (10-19 years, 20.9 per cent of the population) are youthful with high potential. But they are vulnerable if not guided: problems include early marriage, female illiteracy, dropouts, poor nutrition, maternal mortality of adolescent mothers, HIV/AIDS, drug abuse and juvenile delinquency. Policies like the National Youth Policy 2014 and skill development policy aim to channel their talents.

8. Q8 · 5 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

   Discuss the factors responsible for the uneven distribution of population in India. (5 marks)

   Hint

   Physical, socio-economic, historical.

   Answer

   Physical: climate, terrain and water make the North Indian Plains, deltas and coastal plains crowded and the Himalayas, interior plateaus and parts of the north-east and west sparse. Human changes: irrigation (Rajasthan), minerals and energy (Jharkhand) and transport (Peninsular states) raised populations in once-thin areas. Socio-economic and historical: settled agriculture, settlement patterns, transport, industrialisation and urbanisation; river plains and coasts stay crowded due to early settlement even with resource degradation. Cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai and Jaipur attract rural migrants. So ten states hold about 76 per cent of people while large states like Arunachal (0.11%) hold very few.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.What was India's population density in 1951 and 2011?Show answer

   117 and 382 persons per sq km.

2. 2.What was India's annual growth rate in 2011?Show answer

   1.64 per cent.

3. 3.What population did the World Development Report project for India by 2025?Show answer

   1,350 million.

4. 4.How many languages and dialects did Grierson record?Show answer

   179 languages and 544 dialects.

5. 5.What share of India's population was urban in 2011?Show answer

   31.16 per cent.

6. 6.What age group does the National Youth Policy 2014 define as youth?Show answer

   15-29 years.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Can you state India's 2011 population and census history?
• ☐Can you explain physical and socio-economic factors of distribution?
• ☐Can you give density figures for India, Arunachal, Bihar and Delhi?
• ☐Can you define physiological and agricultural density?
• ☐Can you describe the four phases of growth?
• ☐Can you describe regional variation in growth?
• ☐Can you explain the adolescent population and youth policies?
• ☐Can you give rural-urban, language and religion figures?
• ☐Can you describe India's occupational structure?
• ☐Can you explain the purpose of Beti Bachao-Beti Padhao?

Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition: frequently asked questions