EconomicsCBSE Class 12 · Indian Economy on the Eve of Independence

Demographic Condition of India on the Eve of Independence (Class 12)

Q: What was India's demographic condition on the eve of independence?

Poor: literacy below 16% (female about 7%), infant mortality about 218 per thousand, life expectancy about 32 years, inadequate health facilities and extensive poverty.

Q: What happened to India's demographic transition in 1921?

India moved from the first to the second stage of demographic transition after 1921.

Q: When was the first census held in India?

In 1881, under British rule; censuses have been held every ten years since.

Q: Why was mortality so high before independence?

Because health facilities were inadequate, water- and air-borne diseases were rampant and poverty was widespread.

Updated 15 October 2026 · Fact-checked

India's first census under British rule was in 1881. India was in the first stage of demographic transition before 1921 and entered the second stage after 1921. Social indicators were poor: overall literacy below 16% (female about 7%), infant mortality about 218 per thousand, life expectancy about 32 years, inadequate public health and extensive poverty.

Understand Demographic Condition on the Eve of Independence

Census. Details about British India's population were first collected through a census in 1881; it had limitations but revealed uneven population growth. Thereafter a census was held every ten years.

Demographic transition. Before 1921, India was in the first stage of demographic transition (high birth and death rates, slow growth). The second stage began after 1921 (death rates start falling while birth rates stay high). Even so, neither the total population nor its growth rate was very high at this stage.

Social development indicators (NCERT).

Indicator	On the eve of independence	Present (as stated in NCERT)
Overall literacy	Less than 16%
Female literacy	About 7%
Infant mortality rate	About 218 per thousand	28 per thousand
Life expectancy	About 32 years	70 years

Causes of the poor profile.

Public health facilities were unavailable to large sections or highly inadequate.
Water- and air-borne diseases were rampant and took a heavy toll.
Hence mortality, especially infant mortality, was very high.
Extensive poverty prevailed (exact data unavailable), worsening the population profile.

Interpreting the numbers. An IMR of 218 means that out of every 1,000 live births, about 218 infants died before their first birthday, nearly eight times NCERT's present figure of 28. Life expectancy has more than doubled (32 → 70 years).

Link to the colonial economy. Low incomes, stagnant agriculture, famines and neglect of health and education by the colonial government together produced this weak demographic profile.

Demographic Condition on the Eve of Independence: key facts

Key dates: First census 1881; censuses every 10 years; second stage of transition after 1921; 1921 marks the start of the second stage.
Indicators (NCERT): Literacy < 16% (female ≈ 7%); IMR ≈ 218 per 1,000; life expectancy ≈ 32 years; Present: IMR 28, life expectancy 70 (NCERT).
IMR: Infant mortality rate = infant deaths (under 1 year) per 1,000 live births; Interpretation, not computation, is usually asked.
Percentage change: % change = (New − Old) ÷ Old × 100; IMR fell about 87%; life expectancy rose about 119%.

How to answer Demographic Condition on the Eve of Independence questions

This topic gives 1-mark facts (census year, 1921, IMR, literacy) and 3-4 mark explanations of India's demographic condition; it was among the most-tagged Eve-of-Independence items.

1Start with the census (1881) and the 1921 transition.
2Quote NCERT's indicators: literacy < 16% (female ≈ 7%), IMR ≈ 218, life expectancy ≈ 32.
3Give causes: poor public health, rampant diseases, extensive poverty.
4If asked to compare with today, use NCERT's present figures (IMR 28, life expectancy 70).

Demographic Condition on the Eve of Independence in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

What an IMR of 218 means

Suppose a district records 50,000 births a year. Compare infant deaths at an IMR of 218 (pre-independence) and 28 (present, as in NCERT).

How many infants would die before age one in each case?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Then: 50,000 × 218 ÷ 1,000 = 10,900.
Now: 50,000 × 28 ÷ 1,000 = 1,400.

Answer: About 10,900 infant deaths then versus about 1,400 now: nearly eight times as many, showing how poor health conditions were before independence.

Memory hook: 218 then, 28 now: one zero-ish digit less.

Tricks to remember Demographic Condition on the Eve of Independence

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

1881 count, 1921 turn
First census 1881; second stage of transition after 1921.
Use it when: Dates.
16-7-218-32
Literacy under 16, women 7, infants 218 die, people live 32.
Use it when: Four indicators in one line.
PDP causes
Poor health facilities, Diseases, Poverty.
Use it when: Causes of the weak profile.

Demographic Condition on the Eve of Independence: solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Start of the second stage · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

After which year did India enter the second stage of demographic transition?
(a) 1881
(b) 1911
(c) 1921
(d) 1951

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

The second stage of demographic transition began after 1921.

Example 2: Demographic profile · 4 marks · Short answerBoard level

Describe the demographic condition of India on the eve of independence. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Census and transition (1 mark).
Literacy (1 mark).
IMR and life expectancy (1 mark).
Health and poverty (1 mark).

Answer: The first census was held in 1881; India was in the first stage of demographic transition till 1921 and entered the second stage after it. Overall literacy was below 16% and female literacy about 7%. Infant mortality was about 218 per thousand and life expectancy only about 32 years. Public health facilities were inadequate, water- and air-borne diseases were rampant, and extensive poverty prevailed.

Example 3: Then and now · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

Using NCERT's figures, calculate the percentage fall in IMR (218 to 28 per thousand) and the percentage rise in life expectancy (32 to 70 years). (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

IMR: (28 − 218) ÷ 218 × 100 ≈ −87.2%.
Life expectancy: (70 − 32) ÷ 32 × 100 = 118.75%.
Check: 28/218 − 1 ≈ −0.872; 70/32 − 1 = 1.1875.

Answer: IMR fell by about 87.2%; life expectancy rose by about 118.75% (an increase of 38 years).

Example 4: Causes of high mortality · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

Why was the mortality rate, especially infant mortality, so high before independence? (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Health facilities absent/inadequate; diseases rampant; poverty.

Answer: Public health facilities were unavailable to large sections of the population or highly inadequate; water- and air-borne diseases were rampant and took a heavy toll; and extensive poverty meant poor nutrition and living conditions. Together these kept overall and infant mortality very high.

Example 5: Stages of transition · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

Distinguish between the first and second stages of demographic transition as they applied to India before independence. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

First stage (before 1921): high birth and death rates, slow growth.
Second stage (after 1921): death rate begins to fall, birth rate high, growth picks up.
Even then growth was not very high.

Answer: Before 1921 India was in the first stage: both birth and death rates were high, so population grew slowly. After 1921 it entered the second stage: death rates began to fall while birth rates remained high, so population growth rose, though NCERT notes that neither the population nor its growth rate was very high at this stage.

Example 6: Census assertion · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHOTS / competency

Assertion (A): The census of 1881 revealed unevenness in India's population growth.
Reason (R): The 1881 census was the first collection of population details in British India.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Both are NCERT statements, but being the first census does not explain the unevenness.

Answer: (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.

Where students lose marks in Demographic Condition on the Eve of Independence

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

Mistake: Mixing up 1881 and 1921
Two key years.
Wrong working
First census in 1921.
Right working
First census 1881; transition's second stage after 1921.
Do this: 1881 count, 1921 turn.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Quoting overall literacy as 7%
Female and overall swapped.
Wrong working
Literacy was 7%.
Right working
Overall below 16%; female about 7%.
Do this: 16 overall, 7 women.
Usually costs: ½ to 1 mark.
Mistake: Listing facts without causes
4-mark answers want reasons too.
Wrong working
IMR 218, life expectancy 32.
Right working
Add: inadequate health facilities, rampant diseases, extensive poverty.
Do this: Facts + causes.
Usually costs: 1 mark.

Exam tips

Demographic condition was the most-tagged Eve-of-Independence item in the PYQ bank (about 3 items, 11 marks).
The syllabus asks only for a brief introduction to the state of the economy; learn NCERT's figures accurately.
Use NCERT's 'present' figures (IMR 28, life expectancy 70) only as NCERT states them.

Practice questions on Demographic Condition on the Eve of Independence

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
On the eve of independence, the overall literacy level in India was:
(a) about 7 per cent
(b) less than 16 per cent
(c) about 32 per cent
(d) about 52 per cent
Hint
Female literacy was about 7%.
Answer
(b) less than 16 per cent
Q2 · 1 mark · Short answerBoard level
When was the first census conducted in British India? (1 mark)
Hint
19th century.
Answer
1881.
Q3 · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level
State any three social indicators that show India's poor demographic condition before independence. (3 marks)
Hint
Literacy, IMR, life expectancy.
Answer
Overall literacy below 16% (female about 7%); infant mortality about 218 per thousand; life expectancy about 32 years.
Q4 · 2 marks · Short answerHarder board level
What change took place in India's demographic transition after 1921? (2 marks)
Hint
Stages of transition.
Answer
India moved from the first stage of demographic transition (before 1921) to the second stage (after 1921), when death rates began to fall while birth rates stayed high.
Q5 · 2 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Life expectancy rose from about 32 years to 70 years (NCERT). By how many years and by what percentage did it rise? (2 marks)
Hint
38 years.
Answer
By 38 years, i.e. (70 − 32) ÷ 32 × 100 = 118.75%.
Q6 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
How did poor public health affect India's population profile before 1947? (3 marks)
Hint
Diseases, mortality.
Answer
Health facilities were unavailable to large sections or highly inadequate, so water- and air-borne diseases spread widely and took a huge toll. Overall mortality, and especially infant mortality (about 218 per thousand), was very high, and life expectancy was only about 32 years.
Q7 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): India's population growth was very high before 1921.
Reason (R): Before 1921 India was in the first stage of demographic transition, with high birth and death rates.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
Hint
High deaths offset high births.
Answer
(d) A is false but R is true.
Q8 · 2 marks · Short answerHarder board level
In a district with 80,000 births a year, how many infants would die before age one at an IMR of 218 and at 28 per thousand? (2 marks)
Hint
Births × IMR ÷ 1,000.
Answer
At 218: 80,000 × 218 ÷ 1,000 = 17,440; at 28: 80,000 × 28 ÷ 1,000 = 2,240.
Q9 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
Suppose someone argues that India's poor demographic indicators in 1947 were 'natural for any poor country'. Using NCERT's account, explain how colonial conditions contributed. (3 marks)
Hint
Health neglect and poverty.
Answer
Colonial rule left public health facilities unavailable or highly inadequate, so diseases were rampant; extensive poverty under a stagnant colonial economy worsened nutrition and living conditions; and education was neglected (literacy below 16%, female about 7%). These conditions, not nature alone, explain high mortality and low life expectancy.
Q10 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
Why is low female literacy (about 7%) an important indicator of backwardness? (3 marks)
Hint
Health, children, development.
Answer
Educated women are better able to look after family health and nutrition, use health services and send children to school; so low female literacy contributes to high infant mortality and poor human development. It also reflects deep social inequality and limits women's participation in economic life.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1.First census year?Show answer
1881.
2.Overall literacy before independence?Show answer
Less than 16%.
3.Life expectancy then?Show answer
About 32 years.
4.After which year did the second stage of transition begin?Show answer
1921.
5.Female literacy then?Show answer
About 7%.

Demographic Condition on the Eve of Independence: frequently asked questions

What was India's demographic condition on the eve of independence?

Poor: literacy below 16% (female about 7%), infant mortality about 218 per thousand, life expectancy about 32 years, inadequate health facilities and extensive poverty.

What happened to India's demographic transition in 1921?

India moved from the first to the second stage of demographic transition after 1921.

When was the first census held in India?

In 1881, under British rule; censuses have been held every ten years since.

Why was mortality so high before independence?

Because health facilities were inadequate, water- and air-borne diseases were rampant and poverty was widespread.