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Axis Invasions 1939-41 ISC Class 12 History Notes

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HistoryISC Class 12 · World War II

Axis Invasions in Europe and Asia, 1939-1941: Poland to Pearl Harbour (ISC Class 12 History)

Updated 17 October 2026 · Fact-checked

Between 1939 and 1941 the Axis powers won rapid victories: Germany overran Poland, Denmark, Norway, the Low Countries and France, failed against Britain in the air, then invaded the USSR in June 1941. In Asia Japan attacked Pearl Harbour in December 1941 and took much of South-East Asia, which made the war truly worldwide.

Notice that five of the six turning points were in Europe, and Pearl Harbour in December 1941 added Asia and made the war worldwide.

Illustration drawn for QuestionBuddy.

Understand Axis Invasions in Europe and Asia, 1939-41

What the syllabus asks. The syllabus lists "Axis invasions in Europe and Asia (1939-1941)". Expect a dated account of the main campaigns, a question on one episode (the Battle of Britain, Barbarossa, Pearl Harbour) and a "why did the war become worldwide" question.

1. Europe in 1939-40.

  • *Poland (September 1939).* Germany used Blitzkrieg, "lightning war", in which tanks, aircraft and motorised infantry broke through and surrounded the defenders. Poland was conquered in weeks and divided with the USSR, which entered from the east on 17 September.
  • *The Phoney War (winter 1939-40).* Britain and France had declared war on 3 September but there was little fighting in the west. The USSR attacked Finland in the Winter War.
  • *Denmark and Norway (April 1940).* Germany seized both. Chamberlain resigned and Winston Churchill became Prime Minister in May 1940.
  • *Holland, Belgium and France (May-June 1940).* German tanks came through the Ardennes and bypassed the Maginot Line. British and French soldiers were evacuated from Dunkirk. France surrendered in June 1940 and the Vichy regime was set up. Italy entered the war in June 1940.

2. Britain stands alone. In the Battle of Britain (July-October 1940) the RAF defeated the German air force, the Luftwaffe, so the planned invasion of Britain (Operation Sea Lion) was called off. The bombing of British cities, the Blitz, followed.

3. North Africa and the Balkans (1940-41). Italian attacks in Egypt and Greece failed. Germany sent Rommel's Afrika Korps (1941) and conquered Yugoslavia and Greece in April 1941.

4. Operation Barbarossa (22 June 1941). Germany invaded the USSR, reached Leningrad and the outskirts of Moscow, but was halted by the winter and a Soviet counter-attack in December 1941. This opened a long two-front struggle.

5. Asia. Japan was already at war in China and occupied French Indo-China (1940-41). When the USA froze Japanese assets and stopped oil exports in 1941, Japan decided to seize the oil and rubber of South-East Asia. On 7 December 1941 it attacked the American Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbour, and at the same time Malaya, Hong Kong and the Philippines. The USA declared war, and Germany and Italy declared war on the USA. By mid-1942 Japan had taken Malaya, Singapore (February 1942), the Dutch East Indies, the Philippines and Burma.

6. Effect of Pearl Harbour. It brought the USA, with its vast resources, into the war on the Allied side and joined the wars in Europe and Asia into one world war. Japan's early gains were large, but it had made a powerful enemy.

Boundary. Aggression from 1933 to the invasion of Poland belongs to other topics; the turn of the war from mid-1942 belongs to the next topic.

Axis Invasions in Europe and Asia, 1939-41: key facts

Europe, 1939-41 in order
  • Poland Sept 1939
  • Phoney War winter 1939-40
  • Denmark and Norway April 1940
  • Low Countries and France May-June 1940
  • Battle of Britain July-Oct 1940
  • Balkans April 1941
  • Barbarossa 22 June 1941
Year beside every event.
Blitzkrieg
  • Tanks
  • Aircraft
  • Motorised infantry
  • Speed and surprise
  • Break through, then surround
Lightning war.
Japan 1941
  • US oil embargo
  • Decision to seize South-East Asia
  • 7 December Pearl Harbour
  • Malaya, Hong Kong, Philippines
  • Singapore February 1942
Cause, attack, gains.

How to answer Axis Invasions in Europe and Asia, 1939-41 questions

Most questions are narrative ("Describe the Axis invasions of 1939-41") or ask for the result of one event (the effect of Pearl Harbour). Chronology is marked.

  1. 1Group the answer: Poland, the West in 1940, Britain, Barbarossa, then Asia.
  2. 2Give a year or month with each event and say who won.
  3. 3For one battle, state cause, result and importance (for example, why Sea Lion was cancelled).
  4. 4End with the wider result: the war became global after Barbarossa and Pearl Harbour.

Axis Invasions in Europe and Asia, 1939-41 in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Speed and surprise in Blitzkrieg

Suppose a sports team notices that the opposing defence is arranged in a long line to guard each corner of the field. It sends its fastest players through one gap and then turns inward behind the line.

Why does the line collapse?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. The defenders were spread out to cover everything.
  2. A fast thrust at one point finds few defenders there.
  3. Once through, the attackers get behind the rest, who are cut off.

Answer: A concentrated fast attack at one weak point beats a thin line; this is the idea behind Blitzkrieg and the way the Maginot Line was bypassed.

Memory hook: Hit one point, go round the rest.

Why opening a second front is risky

Imagine a shopkeeper who is in a price war with one rival and, before winning it, starts a second dispute with a much larger firm.

Why does he risk losing both?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. His money, time and stock are split between two fights.
  2. The larger firm has more resources.
  3. If the first fight drags on, he cannot move his resources.

Answer: Splitting resources across two powerful opponents makes defeat likelier; Hitler's attack on the USSR in 1941 while Britain was unbeaten is the historical parallel.

Memory hook: Two fights, one purse.

Tricks to remember Axis Invasions in Europe and Asia, 1939-41

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

  • P-N-F-B-B for Europe

    Poland, Norway, France, Britain (air battle), Barbarossa.

    Use it when: The five main stages in order.

  • Pearl Harbour = P-H-A-N-D

    Pacific fleet attacked, Hong Kong, American entry, Naval power lost for the US, Declaration of war by Germany and Italy.

    Use it when: Effects of 7 December 1941.

Axis Invasions in Europe and Asia, 1939-41: solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Blitzkrieg · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

What was meant by "Blitzkrieg"? Name the country against which it was first used in the Second World War. [2]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Lightning war using tanks, aircraft and motorised infantry (1 mark).
  2. Poland, September 1939 (1 mark).

Answer: Blitzkrieg was a rapid, concentrated attack by tanks, aircraft and motorised infantry that broke through enemy lines and surrounded them. It was first used in the Second World War against Poland in September 1939.

Example 2: The Battle of Britain · 4 marks · Short answerBoard level

Write a short note on the Battle of Britain (1940). [4]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Germany planned to invade Britain (Operation Sea Lion) and first needed control of the air (1 mark).
  2. RAF fought the Luftwaffe from July to October 1940 (1 mark).
  3. Germany failed; Sea Lion was called off (1 mark).
  4. Germany turned to the Blitz and later invaded the USSR; Britain remained a base for the Allies (1 mark).

Answer: After the fall of France Germany prepared to invade Britain in Operation Sea Lion, for which it needed to destroy the RAF. In the Battle of Britain, from July to October 1940, the RAF defeated the Luftwaffe and the invasion was called off. Germany then bombed British cities in the Blitz. The victory kept Britain in the war as a base for later Allied action and was Germany's first major failure.

Example 3: Fall of France · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level

Explain how Germany defeated France in May-June 1940. [4]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Attack on Holland and Belgium (1 mark).
  2. Tanks through the Ardennes, bypassing the Maginot Line (1 mark).
  3. Dunkirk evacuation (1 mark).
  4. France surrendered in June; Vichy regime (1 mark).

Answer: In May 1940 Germany attacked Holland and Belgium. Its tanks then came through the wooded Ardennes, bypassing the Maginot Line which faced the German frontier, and drove to the coast. British and French soldiers were evacuated from Dunkirk. France surrendered in June 1940 and a Vichy regime was set up in the unoccupied part of the country.

Example 4: Why Japan attacked · 6 marks · Long answerHarder board level

Why did Japan attack Pearl Harbour in December 1941, and what were the consequences? [6]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Japan at war in China and in need of oil and raw materials (2 marks).
  2. US freeze of assets and oil embargo in 1941 (1 mark).
  3. The attack of 7 December and simultaneous attacks (1 mark).
  4. US entry, Germany and Italy declaring war on the USA, a world war (2 marks).

Answer: Japan was fighting in China and had occupied French Indo-China, but it depended on imported oil. In 1941 the USA froze Japanese assets and stopped oil exports, so Japan decided to seize the oil and rubber of South-East Asia and to cripple the American fleet that could oppose it. On 7 December 1941 it attacked Pearl Harbour and, at the same time, Malaya, Hong Kong and the Philippines. The USA declared war and Germany and Italy declared war on the USA, so the wars in Europe and Asia became one world war. Japan won many early victories, taking Singapore in February 1942, but it had brought the world's greatest industrial power against it.

Example 5: Source-based: a decision of 1941 · 6 marks · Source-basedHOTS / competency

Read the extract (written for this page) and answer.

In the summer of 1941 a European dictator ordered an attack on a country with which he had signed a pact two years earlier. His armies advanced for months and came close to its capital, but heavy snow, long supply lines and a fierce counter-attack stopped them in December. Within days a distant naval attack in the Pacific brought another large power into the conflict.

(i) Name the operation and the date it began. [1]
(ii) Name the pact referred to. [1]
(iii) State two reasons why the German advance was halted. [2]
(iv) Which event in the Pacific is described, and why did it change the war? [2]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. (i) Operation Barbarossa, 22 June 1941 (1 mark).
  2. (ii) Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of August 1939 (1 mark).
  3. (iii) Winter, long supply lines, Soviet counter-attack (2 marks).
  4. (iv) Pearl Harbour; brought the USA into the war and made it truly worldwide (2 marks).

Answer: (i) Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the USSR, began on 22 June 1941. (ii) The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 1939. (iii) The winter and stretched supply lines slowed the Germans, and the Soviet army counter-attacked in December 1941. (iv) The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour on 7 December 1941; it brought the United States, with its huge resources, into the war and linked the conflicts in Europe and Asia.

Where students lose marks in Axis Invasions in Europe and Asia, 1939-41

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

  • Mistake: Dating the war from the invasion of France

    Mixing up the start of the war with the fall of France.

    Wrong working

    The war began when Germany attacked France in 1940.

    Right working

    Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939; Britain and France declared war on 3 September.

    Do this: War = Poland, 1939.

    Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

  • Mistake: Placing Barbarossa before the Battle of Britain

    Not knowing the order.

    Wrong working

    Barbarossa 1940, Battle of Britain 1941.

    Right working

    Battle of Britain July-October 1940; Barbarossa 22 June 1941.

    Do this: Britain first (1940), Russia next (1941).

    Usually costs: 1 mark in a chronology question.

  • Mistake: Saying Pearl Harbour brought the USSR into the war

    Confusing two Allied entries.

    Wrong working

    The attack brought Russia to join the Allies.

    Right working

    The USSR was invaded in June 1941; Pearl Harbour (December 1941) brought the USA into the war.

    Do this: USSR = Barbarossa; USA = Pearl Harbour.

    Usually costs: 2 marks.

  • Mistake: Writing a story with no dates

    Narrative without anchors.

    Wrong working

    Germany attacked Poland, then France, then Russia.

    Right working

    Add the month and year to each step and the result of each.

    Do this: Date + event + result.

    Usually costs: 2 marks in a 6-mark answer.

Exam tips

  • Learn the year-by-year order of the campaigns; examiners report that candidates often mix up chronology.
  • For one battle, always give cause, result and importance in three short points.
  • When asked the effect of Pearl Harbour, name the USA's entry and the widening of the war, not only the damage done.

Practice questions on Axis Invasions in Europe and Asia, 1939-41

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

  1. Q1 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

    Name the two countries that invaded Poland in September 1939 and give the date on which Britain and France declared war. [2]

    Hint

    One from the west, one from the east, and the date was a few days after the invasion began.

    Answer

    Germany (1 September) and the USSR (17 September) invaded Poland; Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939.

  2. Q2 · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level

    What was the "Phoney War"? Why was it given this name? [3]

    Hint

    A period without major fighting on the western front.

    Answer

    The Phoney War was the winter of 1939-40 after Britain and France declared war on Germany. Despite the declaration there was very little fighting in the west, so the war seemed unreal. Meanwhile the USSR attacked Finland in the Winter War.

  3. Q3 · 5 marks · Short answerHarder board level

    Explain the importance of Operation Barbarossa in the course of the Second World War. [5]

    Hint

    Think of two fronts and Soviet resources.

    Answer

    Operation Barbarossa, begun on 22 June 1941, broke the Nazi-Soviet Pact and opened a vast eastern front. German armies reached Leningrad and the outskirts of Moscow but were halted by winter and a Soviet counter-attack in December 1941. Germany now had to fight Britain and the USSR at the same time, and the USSR became an Allied partner. The huge losses on the eastern front later weakened Germany.

  4. Q4 · 5 marks · Short answerHarder board level

    Why did Mussolini's Italy enter the war in June 1940, and how did the Italian campaigns of 1940-41 go? [5]

    Hint

    It joined when France seemed beaten; its attacks on Egypt and Greece failed.

    Answer

    Italy entered the war in June 1940 when France was collapsing, hoping to share the gains of a German victory. Its attacks on British-held Egypt and on Greece failed, and Germany had to come to its help: Rommel's Afrika Korps was sent to North Africa in 1941 and Germany conquered Yugoslavia and Greece in April 1941. Italy thus became a burden rather than a help to Germany.

  5. Q5 · 6 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

    "Pearl Harbour was a tactical success but a strategic mistake for Japan." Examine the statement. [6] (Evaluation)

    Hint

    Compare early gains with the long-term balance of resources.

    Answer

    In the short term the attack was a success: Japan struck the American Pacific fleet and, with simultaneous attacks, took Malaya, Hong Kong, the Philippines and Singapore (February 1942), and by mid-1942 much of South-East Asia. But it brought the USA, the strongest industrial power, into the war, and Germany and Italy declared war on the USA, uniting the Allies against all the Axis powers. Japan had to defend an overstretched empire against a power it could not match in production, and its advance was halted at Midway in June 1942. The statement is therefore largely true: the attack won territory but made eventual defeat more likely.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

  1. 1.What is Blitzkrieg?Show answer

    A rapid attack by tanks, aircraft and motorised infantry.

  2. 2.When did Germany invade the USSR and under what name?Show answer

    22 June 1941; Operation Barbarossa.

  3. 3.Who won the Battle of Britain?Show answer

    Britain: the RAF defeated the Luftwaffe in 1940.

  4. 4.Which line did German tanks bypass in 1940?Show answer

    The Maginot Line, by coming through the Ardennes.

  5. 5.What was the date of Pearl Harbour?Show answer

    7 December 1941.

  6. 6.Who became British Prime Minister in May 1940?Show answer

    Winston Churchill.

Axis Invasions in Europe and Asia, 1939-41: frequently asked questions

What were the main Axis victories between 1939 and 1941?

Poland (1939), Denmark and Norway (April 1940), the Low Countries and France (May-June 1940), Yugoslavia and Greece (April 1941), and in Asia Malaya, Hong Kong and the Philippines (from December 1941).

Why did the Germans fail in the Battle of Britain?

The RAF kept control of the air, so the invasion (Operation Sea Lion) could not be risked and was called off.

Why did Japan attack Pearl Harbour?

It wanted to destroy the American Pacific fleet so as to seize the oil and rubber of South-East Asia, especially after the US oil embargo.

Why did the war become a world war?

Because of Barbarossa (the USSR) and Pearl Harbour (the USA), which joined the wars in Europe and Asia into one.