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Great Leap Forward 1958-61 ISC Class 12 History Notes

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HistoryISC Class 12 · De-colonisation in Asia, China and Africa

The Great Leap Forward (1958-61): Communes, Features and Assessment (ISC Class 12 History)

Updated 17 October 2026 · Fact-checked

Mao Zedong launched the Great Leap Forward in 1958 to develop agriculture and industry together through mass mobilisation. Collective farms were merged into about 26,000 communes and villagers made steel in backyard furnaces. Unrealistic targets, exaggerated reports, poor methods and bad weather produced a famine in 1959-61 and the policy was scaled down, though some communes and public works lasted.

Understand The Great Leap Forward in China (1958-61)

What the syllabus asks. "The Great Leap Forward should be covered in more detail, particularly the development of commune and assessment of the GLF." So give the reason for it, the commune in detail, the other features and a balanced assessment. (Land redistribution, collective farms and the First Five Year Plan are only background here.)

1. Why Mao launched it. The Soviet model favoured heavy industry and cities, while China's strength was its huge rural labour force. Mao wanted to "walk on two legs", developing agriculture and industry together, and to overtake Britain in steel production quickly, using mass mobilisation and revolutionary enthusiasm rather than Soviet-style experts.

2. Main features.
1. *Communes.* In 1958 the collective farms were merged into about 26,000 large communes, each with several thousand households. A commune ran collective farms and shared out profits among members; acted as the local government (replacing the township), with its own militia; ran small factories, schools, clinics, nurseries and communal mess halls; and organised labour for public works.
2. *Small-scale industry.* Less emphasis on large-scale heavy industry; small local factories and "backyard furnaces" in villages and towns to make iron and steel.
3. *Huge public works.* Dams, reservoirs, irrigation canals, flood-control works and roads, built by mass labour.
4. *Social change.* Communal kitchens and nurseries freed women for farm and factory work.
5. *Unrealistic targets and campaigns.* Close planting and deep ploughing, and the campaign against sparrows, which led to plagues of insects.

3. Assessment: failures (short term).
1. A disastrous famine (1959-61): grain output fell sharply; local officials exaggerated harvests, so the state took too much grain; tens of millions of people died.
2. Backyard steel was mostly useless; peasants were taken away from farming to work the furnaces, and tools and pots were melted down.
3. Unscientific farming methods reduced yields, and the anti-sparrow campaign upset the ecology.
4. Floods and droughts in 1959-61 made things worse.
5. The Soviet Union withdrew its experts in 1960 after the Sino-Soviet split, halting many projects.
6. Communal mess halls and the loss of private plots reduced incentives.
7. Political cost: critics such as Peng Dehuai were purged (1959); Mao had already given up the post of head of state to Liu Shaoqi in 1959; pragmatic leaders scaled down the communes and restored private plots from 1961.

4. Successes and long-term impact.
1. The communes, reduced in size, survived as effective units of local government and rural organisation, running welfare, health and education.
2. Dams, reservoirs and irrigation works built in this period helped agriculture recover and grow later.
3. Small-scale rural industry spread, producing tools, fertiliser and cement for the countryside.
4. Welfare and education reached the villages, and women entered paid work in large numbers.
5. It showed the limits of mass mobilisation and influenced later, more pragmatic policies.

Verdict. In the short run the Leap was a catastrophe, but some of its institutions and public works laid foundations for later growth. The death toll is estimated differently by different scholars; use "tens of millions" as the source text does, not a precise figure.

The Great Leap Forward in China (1958-61): key facts

The commune
  • About 26,000 communes in 1958
  • Several thousand households each
  • Farms, local government, militia, small factories, schools, clinics, nurseries, mess halls
Multi-purpose unit.
Causes of failure
  • Exaggerated harvests
  • Useless backyard steel
  • Poor farming methods
  • Floods and droughts
  • Soviet experts withdrawn 1960
  • Loss of incentives
Six main causes.
Aftermath
  • Peng Dehuai purged 1959
  • Liu Shaoqi head of state
  • Communes scaled down from 1961
  • Private plots restored
Policy reversed.

How to answer The Great Leap Forward in China (1958-61) questions

Common questions: describe the commune (4-6 marks) or assess the GLF (6-8 marks). For assessment, give failures, then successes, then a verdict.

  1. 1State Mao's aim ("two legs", overtake Britain) in one sentence.
  2. 2Describe the commune with its functions in a list.
  3. 3List failures with the famine first, then other causes.
  4. 4Add long-term gains (communes, public works, rural industry).
  5. 5End with a clear verdict.

The Great Leap Forward in China (1958-61) in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Exaggerated reports

Suppose each class monitor reports a bigger collection of donated books than the class actually gathered, because everyone wants to look successful, and the school plans a library based on the false total.

What problem arises?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. The plan assumes books that do not exist.
  2. The shortage appears only at the end.
  3. No one can correct it in time because everyone reported success.

Answer: False reports lead to wrong decisions; in the GLF officials exaggerated harvests, so the state took too much grain.

Memory hook: False numbers, real hunger.

Targets without method

Imagine a town that sets itself a target to build a big park in one month and takes workers off their regular jobs to dig.

What might go wrong?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Regular work is neglected.
  2. Rushed work is poor in quality.
  3. The target is missed and ordinary services suffer.

Answer: Ambitious targets without proper planning waste resources; the backyard furnaces diverted labour from farming and produced mostly useless steel.

Memory hook: Zeal is not a plan.

Tricks to remember The Great Leap Forward in China (1958-61)

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

  • C-I-P-S-U for features

    Communes, Industry in backyards, Public works, Social change for women, Unrealistic targets.

    Use it when: Five features.

  • F-S-F-F-S-I for failures

    Famine, Steel useless, Farming methods, Floods and droughts, Soviet withdrawal, Incentives lost.

    Use it when: Causes of failure.

The Great Leap Forward in China (1958-61): solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Commune · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

What was a commune in China during the Great Leap Forward? When were communes formed? [2]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Large unit of several thousand households running farms, factories and local government (1 mark).
  2. 1958, about 26,000 of them (1 mark).

Answer: A commune was a large unit of several thousand households that ran collective farms, small factories, schools, clinics and local government. About 26,000 communes were formed in 1958 by merging collective farms.

Example 2: Aim of the Leap · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level

What was Mao's reasoning for rejecting the Soviet model of development in 1958? [3]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Soviet model unsuited to China's rural labour (1 mark).
  2. Develop agriculture and industry together (1 mark).
  3. Overtake Britain in steel by mass mobilisation (1 mark).

Answer: The Soviet model favoured heavy industry and cities, but China's strength was its huge rural labour force. Mao wanted to develop agriculture and industry together, "walking on two legs", and to overtake Britain in steel quickly, using mass mobilisation and revolutionary enthusiasm rather than Soviet-style experts.

Example 3: Functions of a commune · 6 marks · Long answerHarder board level

Describe the functions of the communes set up in China in 1958. [6]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Farming and sharing (1.5 marks).
  2. Local government and militia (1.5 marks).
  3. Industry (1.5 marks).
  4. Social services and public works (1.5 marks).

Answer: A commune ran collective farms and shared out profits among its members. It acted as the local government, replacing the township, and had its own militia. It ran small factories, including backyard furnaces. It provided schools, clinics, nurseries and communal mess halls, which freed women for work, and it organised labour for dams, canals and roads.

Example 4: Assessment · 8 marks · Long answerHarder board level

Assess the Great Leap Forward, giving both its failures and any lasting achievements. [8]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Famine and its causes (3 marks).
  2. Other failures and political cost (2 marks).
  3. Lasting achievements (2 marks).
  4. Verdict (1 mark).

Answer: The immediate result was a disastrous famine in 1959-61, in which tens of millions died: local officials had exaggerated harvests so the state took too much grain, peasants were diverted to useless backyard steel, farming methods such as close planting reduced yields, floods and droughts struck, and the Soviet Union withdrew its experts in 1960. Critics such as Peng Dehuai were purged in 1959, but from 1961 pragmatic leaders scaled down the communes and restored private plots. Some things lasted: the reduced communes served as local government and ran health and education, dams and irrigation works helped later agriculture, and rural industry spread. The Leap was a catastrophe in the short run, though its public works and institutions contributed to later growth.

Example 5: Source-based: a harvest report · 6 marks · Source-basedHOTS / competency

Read the extract (written for this page) and answer.

In 1958 a county official reported that his commune had produced several times the grain harvested before, in order to be praised. The state demanded a large share of this "harvest" for the cities. Meanwhile many villagers had left the fields to feed backyard furnaces, and by 1960 food was scarce.

(i) Identify the campaign. [1]
(ii) Why did officials exaggerate? [1]
(iii) Explain how the exaggeration helped to cause a famine. [2]
(iv) State two ways in which the leadership changed policy after 1960. [2]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. (i) Great Leap Forward (1 mark).
  2. (ii) To show success and please superiors; pressure of targets (1 mark).
  3. (iii) State took grain from the real harvest, leaving too little; labour drawn from fields (2 marks).
  4. (iv) Communes scaled down; private plots restored; markets and incentives reintroduced (any two, 2 marks).

Answer: (i) The Great Leap Forward. (ii) Officials wanted to show success and meet the high targets set from above. (iii) The state took grain according to the inflated figures, leaving villagers too little to eat, and labour moved from the fields to the furnaces, so food output fell. (iv) From 1961 pragmatic leaders scaled down the communes and restored private plots.

Where students lose marks in The Great Leap Forward in China (1958-61)

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

  • Mistake: Confusing the commune with a collective farm

    Both are collective units.

    Wrong working

    A commune was a collective farm of 30 families.

    Right working

    A commune merged many collective farms into a unit of several thousand households with farming, industry and government functions.

    Do this: Commune = collective farms merged and made multi-purpose.

    Usually costs: 2 marks.

  • Mistake: Only giving the failure

    The syllabus asks for assessment.

    Wrong working

    A list of causes of famine.

    Right working

    Add the lasting gains: communes as local government, public works, rural industry.

    Do this: Failures, gains, verdict.

    Usually costs: 2-3 marks.

  • Mistake: Giving a precise death toll

    Estimates vary.

    Wrong working

    Exactly 30 million died.

    Right working

    "Tens of millions" died, estimates differ.

    Do this: Avoid false precision.

    Usually costs: 1 mark.

  • Mistake: Dating the Leap to 1949-58

    Mixing with the earlier stages.

    Wrong working

    The GLF was in the 1950s generally.

    Right working

    1958-61; the First Five Year Plan was 1953-57.

    Do this: GLF 1958-61.

    Usually costs: 1 mark.

Exam tips

  • Describe the commune with a list of its functions: farms, government, militia, industry, social services, public works.
  • In assessment, use the two-column method: failures then achievements.
  • Write "tens of millions" for the famine deaths, as estimates differ.

Practice questions on The Great Leap Forward in China (1958-61)

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

  1. Q1 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

    What were "backyard furnaces"? Why were they a failure? [2]

    Hint

    Small furnaces for iron and steel.

    Answer

    They were small furnaces in villages and towns where people made iron and steel. They were a failure because the steel was mostly useless, farm labour was diverted and tools and pots were melted down.

  2. Q2 · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level

    Name two social features of the communes and explain how each affected women. [3]

    Hint

    Mess halls and nurseries.

    Answer

    Communal kitchens and nurseries freed women from cooking and childcare so that they could work on the farm and in factories. This brought women into paid work in large numbers.

  3. Q3 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level

    How did the failure of the Leap change the balance of power among China's leaders? [4]

    Hint

    Peng Dehuai, Liu Shaoqi, pragmatists.

    Answer

    Critics such as Peng Dehuai were purged in 1959. In the same year Mao stepped down as head of state in favour of Liu Shaoqi, though he kept the chairmanship of the Party. From 1961 pragmatic leaders such as Liu and Deng scaled down the communes and restored private plots. Mao's prestige was weakened, though he later returned to the centre of power.

  4. Q4 · 5 marks · Short answerHarder board level

    How did the withdrawal of Soviet experts and natural disasters add to the crisis of 1959-61? [5]

    Hint

    Sino-Soviet split, floods and droughts.

    Answer

    In 1960, after the Sino-Soviet split, the Soviet Union withdrew its experts, which halted many industrial and technical projects. Floods and droughts in 1959-61 reduced the harvests further. Both factors compounded the problems caused by exaggerated reports, poor farming methods and the diversion of labour from the fields.

  5. Q5 · 6 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

    "The Great Leap Forward was a total failure." Evaluate this statement. [6] (Evaluation)

    Hint

    Compare the famine and waste with the communes, public works and rural industry.

    Answer

    In the short term the claim is largely true: the famine caused tens of millions of deaths, backyard steel was useless and the Soviet split and bad weather made matters worse. But "total" goes too far. Reduced communes continued as local governments running health and education, dams and irrigation works helped later agriculture, small rural industry spread, and women entered paid work. It also taught later leaders the danger of unrealistic targets. A fair verdict is a severe short-term failure with some lasting institutional gains.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

  1. 1.Years of the Great Leap Forward?Show answer

    1958-61.

  2. 2.About how many communes were formed in 1958?Show answer

    About 26,000.

  3. 3.What did Mao mean by "walking on two legs"?Show answer

    Developing agriculture and industry together.

  4. 4.Who was purged in 1959 for criticising the Leap?Show answer

    Peng Dehuai.

  5. 5.When did the Soviet Union withdraw its experts?Show answer

    1960.

  6. 6.Who became head of state after Mao stepped aside?Show answer

    Liu Shaoqi.

The Great Leap Forward in China (1958-61): frequently asked questions

What was the Great Leap Forward?

Mao's 1958 campaign to develop agriculture and industry together through communes and mass mobilisation.

Why did the Great Leap Forward fail?

Exaggerated harvest reports, useless backyard steel, poor farming methods, floods and droughts, Soviet withdrawal and loss of incentives led to famine.

What was the achievement of the communes?

Reduced in size, they survived as local government units running welfare, health and education.

How did China change policy after the Leap?

Communes were scaled down and private plots restored from 1961 under pragmatic leaders.