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Break-up of the USSR 1985-91 ISC Class 12 History

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HistoryISC Class 12 · The Cold War, 1945-91: Origin, End and Impact

The Break-up of the USSR (1985-91): Reasons, Political Changes, Coup and Collapse (ISC Class 12 History)

Updated 17 October 2026 · Fact-checked

The USSR collapsed because of economic stagnation and arms spending, the Afghan war, Gorbachev's reforms of glasnost and perestroika, the loss of Eastern Europe in 1989 and nationalism in the republics. After the failed hard-line coup of August 1991, Russia, Ukraine and Belarus formed the CIS on 8 December and Gorbachev resigned on 25 December 1991, leaving fifteen independent states.

Notice how several pressures built up together, then the failed August 1991 coup pushed events quickly to the end of the USSR in December.

Illustration drawn for QuestionBuddy.

Understand The Break-up of the USSR (1985-91)

What the syllabus asks. "Breakup of the USSR: Reasons for collapse of USSR; Political changes; Coup of 1991; Demand for independence by the Soviet republics leading to the breakup of USSR." Follow that order.

1. Reasons for collapse.
1. *Economic stagnation:* an inefficient command economy, shortages, low productivity and huge spending on defence and the arms race.
2. *The cost of the war in Afghanistan* (1979-89).
3. *Gorbachev's reforms.* Glasnost (openness) allowed criticism of the system; perestroika (restructuring) disrupted the planned economy without creating a working market economy.
4. *The loss of Eastern Europe in 1989* showed that Soviet power could be challenged.
5. *Nationalism in the republics.* The Baltic states, Georgia, Ukraine and others demanded autonomy and independence.
6. *Political rivalry* between Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin, elected President of the Russian Republic in 1991.

2. Political changes. The Communist Party lost its monopoly of power (1990); there were multi-candidate elections to a new Congress of People's Deputies (1989); Gorbachev became executive President (1990); and a new Union Treaty was prepared to give the republics more powers.

3. The coup of August 1991. Hard-line communists placed Gorbachev under house arrest in the Crimea to stop the Union Treaty. Yeltsin, standing on a tank outside the Russian parliament in Moscow, led popular resistance; the army refused to fire; and the coup collapsed within three days.

4. Break-up.

  • After the coup the Communist Party was suspended; the independence of the Baltic states was recognised (September 1991); and Ukraine voted for independence (December 1991).
  • On 8 December 1991 Russia, Ukraine and Belarus formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), joined by most other republics.
  • Gorbachev resigned on 25 December 1991, and the USSR ceased to exist. Fifteen independent states emerged.

5. Impact. The end of the Cold War; the USA became the sole superpower; and a wave of democratisation and market reform in former communist states.

Boundary. The fall of communism in Poland and East Germany is a separate topic; detente is also separate.

The Break-up of the USSR (1985-91): key facts

Key terms
  • Glasnost = openness
  • Perestroika = restructuring
  • CIS = Commonwealth of Independent States
  • Union Treaty = proposed new powers for republics
Define each in one line.
Timeline
  • 1985 Gorbachev
  • 1989 Eastern Europe lost
  • 1990 party loses monopoly
  • Aug 1991 coup
  • 8 Dec 1991 CIS
  • 25 Dec 1991 USSR ends
Six steps.
Reasons
  • Stagnation and arms race
  • Afghan war
  • Glasnost and perestroika
  • Loss of Eastern Europe
  • Nationalism
  • Gorbachev-Yeltsin rivalry
Six reasons.

How to answer The Break-up of the USSR (1985-91) questions

Four typical questions: reasons for collapse, political changes, the coup, and the break-up itself. Define glasnost and perestroika.

  1. 1List the reasons in order of importance with a one-line explanation.
  2. 2Name the political changes and define glasnost and perestroika.
  3. 3Describe the coup: who, where, how it failed.
  4. 4Give the dates of the break-up: 8 December CIS and 25 December Gorbachev's resignation.

The Break-up of the USSR (1985-91) in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Reform that loosens control

Suppose a strict school head allows students to criticise rules openly and redesigns the timetable, but does not put a new system in place, so classes become disorganised and students ask for more changes.

Why might reform make the old system collapse?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Open criticism shows weaknesses.
  2. Dismantling the old system without a new one creates confusion.
  3. People demand more change than the leader intended.

Answer: Reform can loosen control faster than a new system forms; glasnost and perestroika produced this effect in the USSR.

Memory hook: Open the lid and the pot boils over.

When the army will not obey

Imagine a committee that tries to seize power in a club by force, but the guards refuse to act against the members.

Why does the attempt fail?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Without enforcers, orders cannot be carried out.
  2. Public resistance grows.
  3. The committee loses legitimacy.

Answer: A coup fails when those who must enforce it refuse; the army refused to fire on crowds in Moscow in August 1991.

Memory hook: No muscle, no coup.

Tricks to remember The Break-up of the USSR (1985-91)

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

  • S-A-G-E-N-R for reasons

    Stagnation, Afghanistan, Gorbachev's reforms, Eastern Europe, Nationalism, Rivalry with Yeltsin.

    Use it when: Six reasons.

  • 8-25 December

    8 December CIS; 25 December Gorbachev resigns.

    Use it when: The final two dates.

The Break-up of the USSR (1985-91): solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Glasnost and perestroika · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

Explain what Gorbachev meant by glasnost and perestroika. [2]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Glasnost = openness (1 mark).
  2. Perestroika = restructuring (1 mark).

Answer: Glasnost meant openness, which allowed criticism of the system. Perestroika meant restructuring of the economy and political system.

Example 2: August 1991 coup · 4 marks · Short answerBoard level

Describe the coup of August 1991 and why it failed. [4]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Hard-liners put Gorbachev under house arrest in the Crimea (1 mark).
  2. Aim: to stop the Union Treaty (1 mark).
  3. Yeltsin led resistance in Moscow (1 mark).
  4. Army refused to fire; collapse within three days (1 mark).

Answer: Hard-line communists placed Gorbachev under house arrest in the Crimea to stop the Union Treaty, which would give the republics more powers. Boris Yeltsin led popular resistance at the Russian parliament in Moscow, standing on a tank. The army refused to fire on the crowds, and the coup collapsed within three days.

Example 3: Reasons for collapse · 8 marks · Long answerHarder board level

Examine the reasons for the collapse of the USSR. [8]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. Economic stagnation and arms race (2 marks).
  2. Afghan war (1 mark).
  3. Gorbachev's reforms (2 marks).
  4. Eastern Europe and nationalism (2 marks).
  5. Rivalry with Yeltsin (1 mark).

Answer: The Soviet command economy was inefficient, with shortages and low productivity, and huge spending on defence and the arms race made it worse. The war in Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989 added to the cost. Gorbachev's reforms opened the system to criticism through glasnost and disrupted the planned economy through perestroika without creating a working market economy. The loss of Eastern Europe in 1989 showed that Soviet power could be challenged, and nationalism in the Baltic states, Georgia, Ukraine and other republics led to demands for independence. Gorbachev's rivalry with Yeltsin, elected President of the Russian Republic in 1991, added to the political crisis.

Example 4: The break-up · 6 marks · Long answerHarder board level

How did the demand for independence by the republics lead to the end of the USSR after the coup of 1991? [6]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. After the coup: party suspended, Baltics (2 marks).
  2. Ukraine's vote (1 mark).
  3. CIS on 8 December (2 marks).
  4. Gorbachev's resignation (1 mark).

Answer: After the failed coup the Communist Party was suspended and the independence of the Baltic states was recognised in September 1991. Ukraine voted for independence in December 1991. On 8 December Russia, Ukraine and Belarus formed the Commonwealth of Independent States, which most other republics joined. Gorbachev resigned on 25 December 1991, and the USSR ceased to exist, leaving fifteen independent states.

Example 5: Source-based: a leader on a tank · 6 marks · Source-basedHOTS / competency

Read the extract (written for this page) and answer.

In August 1991 a group of officials announced that the head of state was ill and that they had taken charge. In the capital, a popular leader climbed on a tank outside the parliament building and urged the people to resist. After three days the plotters gave up. Within months, republics left the union.

(i) Name the head of state and the popular leader. [1]
(ii) Why did the plotters act? [1]
(iii) Explain two consequences of the failure of the coup. [2]
(iv) State two long-term effects of the end of the USSR on world politics. [2]

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
  1. (i) Gorbachev; Yeltsin (1 mark).
  2. (ii) To stop the Union Treaty giving the republics more powers (1 mark).
  3. (iii) Communist Party suspended; republics declared independence (2 marks).
  4. (iv) End of the Cold War; USA sole superpower; democratisation and market reform (2 marks).

Answer: (i) Mikhail Gorbachev; Boris Yeltsin. (ii) The plotters wanted to stop the Union Treaty, which would have given the republics more powers. (iii) The Communist Party was suspended and its authority collapsed, and the republics, including the Baltic states and Ukraine, moved to independence. (iv) The Cold War ended and the USA became the sole superpower; there was also a wave of democratisation and market reform in former communist states.

Where students lose marks in The Break-up of the USSR (1985-91)

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

  • Mistake: Confusing glasnost and perestroika

    Both are Gorbachev reforms.

    Wrong working

    Glasnost was economic restructuring.

    Right working

    Glasnost = openness; perestroika = restructuring.

    Do this: G = Gate open; P = Plan changed.

    Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

  • Mistake: Giving 1989 for the break-up

    Mixing with Eastern Europe.

    Wrong working

    The USSR collapsed in 1989.

    Right working

    Eastern Europe in 1989; the USSR ended on 25 December 1991.

    Do this: 1989 Eastern Europe; 1991 USSR.

    Usually costs: 1 mark.

  • Mistake: Making the coup succeed

    Not remembering the three days.

    Wrong working

    The coup removed Gorbachev from power.

    Right working

    It collapsed within three days after resistance led by Yeltsin.

    Do this: Coup failed.

    Usually costs: 2 marks.

  • Mistake: Blaming a single cause

    Syllabus asks for reasons (plural).

    Wrong working

    Gorbachev caused the collapse.

    Right working

    Economic, military, political and nationalist causes together.

    Do this: Four or more reasons.

    Usually costs: 2-3 marks.

Exam tips

  • Define glasnost and perestroika whenever you mention them.
  • Learn two final dates: 8 December and 25 December 1991.
  • Give at least five reasons for collapse and arrange them as economic, military and political.

Practice questions on The Break-up of the USSR (1985-91)

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

  1. Q1 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

    Who was elected President of the Russian Republic in 1991? [2]

    Hint

    Rival of Gorbachev.

    Answer

    Boris Yeltsin, who became Gorbachev's main rival.

  2. Q2 · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level

    What was the Commonwealth of Independent States? When was it formed? [3]

    Hint

    Russia, Ukraine, Belarus.

    Answer

    The CIS was a loose association formed on 8 December 1991 by Russia, Ukraine and Belarus and joined by most other former Soviet republics. It replaced the USSR in practice.

  3. Q3 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level

    How did the war in Afghanistan and the arms race contribute to the Soviet collapse? [4]

    Hint

    Economic cost.

    Answer

    The war in Afghanistan (1979-89) cost large sums and lives, and the arms race took a very high share of the Soviet budget. Together they strained an already stagnating command economy, leaving little for consumer goods and reform.

  4. Q4 · 5 marks · Short answerHarder board level

    Explain why nationalism in the republics weakened the Soviet Union. [5]

    Hint

    Baltic states, Georgia, Ukraine; Union Treaty.

    Answer

    The Baltic states, Georgia, Ukraine and other republics demanded autonomy or independence, encouraged by glasnost and the loss of Eastern Europe in 1989. The Union Treaty tried to give them more powers but the August 1991 coup attempted to stop it. After the coup they moved to independence, which ended the union.

  5. Q5 · 6 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

    "Gorbachev destroyed the USSR." Evaluate this statement using evidence for and against. [6] (Evaluation)

    Hint

    Compare his reforms with the structural problems of the system.

    Answer

    In support: glasnost allowed criticism and perestroika disrupted the planned economy without creating a working market, and the loss of Eastern Europe happened under him. Against: the economy was already stagnating, defence spending and the Afghan war were costly, and nationalism in the republics had long roots. Gorbachev tried to reform a system that could not reform itself; his reforms exposed and sped up the crisis rather than creating it. The statement is therefore only partly true.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

  1. 1.What does glasnost mean?Show answer

    Openness.

  2. 2.Where was Gorbachev held during the coup?Show answer

    In the Crimea.

  3. 3.Who led resistance to the coup in Moscow?Show answer

    Boris Yeltsin.

  4. 4.When did Gorbachev resign?Show answer

    25 December 1991.

  5. 5.How many states emerged from the USSR?Show answer

    Fifteen.

  6. 6.Which three republics formed the CIS on 8 December?Show answer

    Russia, Ukraine and Belarus.

The Break-up of the USSR (1985-91): frequently asked questions

Why did the USSR collapse?

Economic stagnation, arms spending, the Afghan war, Gorbachev's reforms, loss of Eastern Europe, nationalism and political rivalry.

What was the August 1991 coup?

An attempt by hard-liners to stop the Union Treaty by detaining Gorbachev; it failed within three days.

What happened on 25 December 1991?

Gorbachev resigned and the USSR ceased to exist.

What was the impact of the Soviet collapse?

The Cold War ended, the USA became the sole superpower and many former communist states adopted democracy and market reforms.