GeographyISC Class 12 · Sources of Energy

Minerals: Iron Ore, Mica, Coal and Petroleum (ISC Class 12 Geography)

Updated 17 October 2026 · Fact-checked

Minerals are metallic (ferrous or non-ferrous) or non-metallic, plus fuel and atomic minerals. Odisha (Keonjhar) leads in iron ore, Andhra Pradesh (Nellore) in mica, Jharkhand (Jharia) in coal reserves with Odisha and Chhattisgarh (Korba) leading recent production, and offshore Mumbai High and Rajasthan (Barmer) in petroleum. Exploitation depends on grade, depth, transport, capital and policy, and mining helps industry but damages land and displaces people.

Follow each branch down: metallic minerals split by iron content, while non-metallic and energy minerals form separate groups with their own examples.

Illustration drawn for QuestionBuddy.

Understand Classification of Minerals, Iron Ore, Mica, Coal and Petroleum

1. Classification. Metallic minerals contain metals that can be extracted by smelting and are mostly found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Ferrous metallic minerals contain iron or are used mainly to make iron and steel: iron ore, manganese, chromite, nickel, cobalt, tungsten. Non-ferrous metallic minerals contain no iron: copper, bauxite (aluminium), lead, zinc, tin, gold, silver. Non-metallic minerals do not yield metals on melting: mica, limestone, gypsum, dolomite, salt, sulphur, potash, diamonds. Energy minerals include coal, petroleum and natural gas, and the atomic minerals uranium and thorium. Metallic minerals are mostly in the old crystalline rocks of the Peninsular Plateau, while many non-metallic and fuel minerals are in sedimentary rocks; metals can be recycled, fuels are used up once burnt.

2. Iron ore. Haematite is high grade (about 60 to 70 per cent iron); magnetite is the highest grade (up to 70 per cent) and magnetic; limonite and siderite are lower grade. Leading state: Odisha (more than half of output), with centres in Keonjhar (Barbil, Joda), Sundargarh and Mayurbhanj (Gorumahisani, Badampahar). Other areas: Chhattisgarh (Bailadila in Dantewada, very high-grade haematite in large mechanised mines with ore exported via Visakhapatnam; Dalli-Rajhara supplying Bhilai), Karnataka (Bellary-Hospet, Kudremukh) and Jharkhand (Noamundi, Gua). Uses: pig iron and steel for construction, machinery, railways, ships and vehicles, the base of heavy industry, and exports.

3. Mica. It splits into thin, transparent, flexible sheets, is an excellent insulator, withstands high voltage and has low power loss. Leading state: Andhra Pradesh, centre Nellore district. Others: Jharkhand (Koderma, Hazaribagh belt) and Rajasthan (Bhilwara, Ajmer). Uses: electrical and electronic insulators, condensers and capacitors, paints, cosmetics and lubricants.

4. Coal. Types: anthracite (best, rare), bituminous (most common; coking coal for steel), lignite (brown coal, low grade, Neyveli in Tamil Nadu) and peat. Most Indian coal is Gondwana coal in the Damodar, Son, Mahanadi and Godavari valleys, with Tertiary coal in the north-east. Jharkhand has the largest reserves, with Jharia the main source of coking coal and Bokaro also important; in recent years Odisha (Talcher, Ib valley) and Chhattisgarh (Korba) lead production. Others: West Bengal (Raniganj), Madhya Pradesh (Singrauli), Telangana (Singareni). Uses: thermal power (the largest use), coking coal for iron and steel, cement, bricks, chemicals and fertilisers, domestic fuel. Potential: abundant reserves make coal the backbone of power and steel. Limitations: much coal is low grade with high ash; coking coal is scarce and imported; reserves in the north-east of the Peninsula are far from western and southern markets, raising transport cost; and coal is non-renewable and polluting.

5. Petroleum. Found in sedimentary rocks in anticlines and fault traps. Producing areas: Mumbai High (offshore, the largest), Rajasthan (Barmer basin, Mangala field, the leading onshore state in recent years), Gujarat (Ankleshwar, Kalol) and Assam (Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran). Uses: fuel for transport (petrol, diesel, aviation fuel), power, LPG, and raw material for petrochemicals (plastics, fertilisers, synthetic fibres). Limitations: India produces only a small fraction of its needs and imports over four-fifths of its crude oil, a heavy burden on foreign exchange; reserves are limited, prices fluctuate, and oil is non-renewable and polluting.

6. Factors affecting exploitation. Quantity and grade of the deposit; depth and accessibility (open-cast or underground); transport to markets and ports; capital and technology; demand and price; availability of power, water and labour; government policy, leases and environmental clearances.

7. Effects of mining on the national economy. Positive: raw materials for steel, power, cement and aluminium; employment; foreign exchange from exports such as iron ore; royalties and revenue for states; growth of towns and infrastructure (Dhanbad, Bailadila). Negative: depletion of non-renewable resources; deforestation, land degradation and water pollution; displacement of tribal people; health hazards to miners; regional inequality where wealth leaves the mining area; and dependence on imports of minerals India lacks, such as crude oil and coking coal. Leading states change over time, so those above reflect recent years.

Classification of Minerals, Iron Ore, Mica, Coal and Petroleum: key facts

Classification: Metallic: ferrous, non-ferrous
Non-metallic
Fuel and atomic minerals
Leading state and centre: Iron ore Odisha, Keonjhar
Mica Andhra Pradesh, Nellore
Coal Jharkhand, Jharia
Petroleum Rajasthan, Barmer
Iron ore grades: Magnetite up to 70%
Haematite about 60-70%
Limonite and siderite lower
Coal types: $A n t h r a c i t e ∣ B i t u min o u s ∣ L i g ni t e ∣ P e a t$
Petroleum areas: Mumbai High offshore
Barmer in Rajasthan
Ankleshwar in Gujarat
Digboi in Assam

Iron ore	Odisha, Keonjhar
Mica	Andhra Pradesh, Nellore
Coal	Jharkhand, Jharia
Petroleum	Rajasthan, Barmer

How to answer Classification of Minerals, Iron Ore, Mica, Coal and Petroleum questions

For mineral questions, give the leading state and the leading centre together, then the uses.

1Classify the mineral (metallic or non-metallic, ferrous or non-ferrous, fuel).
2Name the leading state and one centre in that state.
3Give two other producing areas if asked.
4State two uses.
5For potential and limitations, give two points each.

Classification of Minerals, Iron Ore, Mica, Coal and Petroleum in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

From mine to bridge

Suppose a student follows the journey of the steel in a new railway bridge back to its ore.

Name the ore, the leading state and centre, and the fuel mineral needed in the steel plant.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

The ore is iron ore, led by Odisha with a centre at Keonjhar.
Smelting needs coking coal, with Jharia a main source.

Answer: Iron ore from Odisha (Keonjhar); coking coal from Jharia.

Memory hook: Ore plus coke gives steel.

A petrol price rise

Suppose newspapers report that crude oil prices in world markets have risen sharply.

Explain why India is hit hard, using the limitation of its petroleum resources.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

India produces only a small fraction of its needs.
It imports over four-fifths of its crude, so higher prices raise the import bill and strain foreign exchange.

Answer: Because India imports most of its crude oil.

Memory hook: We burn more oil than we pump.

Tricks to remember Classification of Minerals, Iron Ore, Mica, Coal and Petroleum

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

Ore Odisha, Mica Andhra
Iron ore leader: Odisha. Mica leader: Andhra Pradesh. Coal reserves: Jharkhand.
Use it when: Leading states.
Ferrous has iron
Ferrous = iron-related (iron ore, manganese, chromite). Non-ferrous = copper, bauxite, lead, zinc.
Use it when: Classification.
Mumbai High is the sea, Barmer is the land
Offshore leader: Mumbai High. Onshore leader in recent years: Rajasthan.
Use it when: Petroleum.

Classification of Minerals, Iron Ore, Mica, Coal and Petroleum: solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Ferrous and non-ferrous · 2 marks · Short answerBoard level

Classify each mineral as ferrous metallic, non-ferrous metallic, non-metallic or fuel: manganese, copper, mica, coal.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Manganese is used mainly to make steel: ferrous metallic.
Copper contains no iron: non-ferrous metallic.
Mica yields no metal: non-metallic. Coal is a fuel mineral.

Answer: Manganese: ferrous. Copper: non-ferrous. Mica: non-metallic. Coal: fuel mineral.

Example 2: Leading state and centre · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level

Name the leading state and one leading centre in that state for (a) iron ore, (b) mica, (c) coal reserves.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

(a) Odisha; Keonjhar.
(b) Andhra Pradesh; Nellore.
(c) Jharkhand; Jharia.

Answer: (a) Odisha, Keonjhar (b) Andhra Pradesh, Nellore (c) Jharkhand, Jharia.

Example 3: Uses of mica · 4 marks · Long answerHarder board level

State the properties of mica that make it useful and give four uses.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Properties: splits into thin, transparent, flexible sheets; excellent insulator; withstands high voltage; low power loss.
Uses: electrical and electronic insulators; condensers and capacitors; paints; cosmetics and lubricants.

Answer: Thin flexible sheets, insulator, withstands high voltage; used in insulators, capacitors, paints and cosmetics.

Example 4: Coal: potential and limitations · 5 marks · Long answerHarder board level

Discuss the potential of coal for industrialisation in India and three limitations.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Potential: abundant reserves make it the backbone of power and steel; used in thermal power, coking for steel, cement and chemicals.
Limitation 1: much coal is low grade with high ash.
Limitation 2: coking coal is scarce and imported.
Limitation 3: reserves in the north-east of the Peninsula are far from western and southern markets, raising transport cost; also non-renewable and polluting.

Answer: Abundant, backbone of power and steel; but low grade, coking coal imported, distant markets, polluting.

Example 5: Weigh mining · 5 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

Case: A state plans a new open-cast iron ore mine near a forest. (a) Give three factors that decide whether the deposit can be exploited. (b) Give two economic benefits. (c) Give two costs for the local people and environment.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

(a) Quantity and grade; accessibility and transport to ports; capital and clearances (also depth, demand, power and water).
(b) Raw material for steel and employment; foreign exchange from exports and royalties for the state.
(c) Deforestation and land degradation; displacement of tribal people (also water pollution and health hazards).

Answer: (a) Grade, transport, capital and clearances (b) raw material, jobs, revenue (c) deforestation and displacement.

Where students lose marks in Classification of Minerals, Iron Ore, Mica, Coal and Petroleum

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

Mistake: Giving only the state without the centre
The syllabus asks for one leading state and one centre.
Do this: Write both, for example Odisha - Keonjhar.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Classifying bauxite or copper as ferrous
Only iron-related minerals are ferrous.
Do this: Copper, bauxite, lead and zinc are non-ferrous.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Naming a single state for coal without saying reserves or production
Jharkhand leads reserves; Odisha and Chhattisgarh lead production.
Do this: State which measure you mean.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Writing uses as 'in industries'
The answer is not specific.
Do this: Name the industry or product, for example insulators for mica.
Usually costs: 1 mark.

Exam tips

Memorise the state-and-centre pairs.
Give potential and limitations in equal numbers.
Say 'recent years' for production rankings.
Power resources and non-conventional energy are on the next topic page.

Practice questions on Classification of Minerals, Iron Ore, Mica, Coal and Petroleum

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
The leading state for mica production is:
(a) Rajasthan
(b) Jharkhand
(c) Andhra Pradesh
(d) Odisha
Hint
Nellore.
Answer
(c) Andhra Pradesh.
Q2 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Name three types of coal and give one use of coking coal.
Hint
Anthracite, bituminous, lignite.
Answer
Anthracite, bituminous and lignite (also peat). Coking coal is used in the iron and steel industry.
Q3 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Why does India depend on imports of petroleum, and what is the effect on the economy?
Hint
Production is a small fraction of needs.
Answer
India produces only a small fraction of its needs from Mumbai High, Barmer, Gujarat and Assam, so it imports most of its crude oil. This is a heavy burden on foreign exchange and exposes the economy to world price changes.
Q4 · 4 marks · Long answerHarder board level
Describe the distribution of iron ore in India with the leading state, centres and other producing areas.
Hint
Odisha first.
Answer
Odisha leads, with centres in Keonjhar (Barbil, Joda), Sundargarh and Mayurbhanj. Chhattisgarh has Bailadila and Dalli-Rajhara, Karnataka has Bellary-Hospet and Kudremukh, and Jharkhand has Noamundi and Gua.
Q5 · 4 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency
Explain why a country may import coking coal although it has large coal reserves, and suggest one effect of such dependence on industrial cost.
Hint
Grade and location.
Answer
Most Indian coal is low-grade with high ash, and coking coal is scarce, so the steel industry imports it. Import raises the cost of steel and exposes producers to price and exchange-rate changes.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1.Leading state for iron ore?Show answer
Odisha.
2.Main source of coking coal?Show answer
Jharia in Jharkhand.
3.Largest petroleum producing area?Show answer
Mumbai High (offshore).
4.Where is lignite mined in Tamil Nadu?Show answer
Neyveli.
5.Highest grade of iron ore?Show answer
Magnetite, up to about 70 per cent iron.

Classification of Minerals, Iron Ore, Mica, Coal and Petroleum: frequently asked questions

Why is mica used in electrical goods?

It is an excellent insulator that withstands high voltage with low power loss.

What is Gondwana coal?

Coal about 200-250 million years old, mainly in the Damodar, Son, Mahanadi and Godavari valleys.

Which state leads onshore petroleum?

Rajasthan in recent years.

Which minerals are atomic minerals?

Uranium and thorium.