The Origin of the State: Divine Origin Theory and the Social Contract (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau), ISC Class 11

What The Origin of the State is about

Weightage: CISCE gives no Class XI unit weightage for ISC Political Science. The Origin of the State is topic 2 of the Class XI syllabus (Political Theory) and can be asked anywhere in the 80-mark Paper I (Theory, 3 hours). Class XI is examined by the school, so your school sets the paper and decides how many marks each topic carries.Source: CISCE ISC Political Science (852) syllabus, examination year 2028, Class XI

Key concepts

Divine origin theory: features

The divine origin theory is the oldest explanation of the state.

Features
1. The state is created by God, not by human beings; it is part of a divine plan.
2. The ruler is God's representative or agent on earth (in some traditions, himself divine).
3. The ruler is responsible only to God, not to the people; his power is unlimited by any earthly authority.
4. Obedience to the ruler is a religious duty; disobedience or rebellion is a sin against God.
5. Kingship is usually hereditary: the right to rule passes by birth within a royal family chosen by God.
6. A bad ruler is punished by God, not removed by subjects.

Examples: Egyptian pharaohs were regarded as gods; Chinese emperors claimed the 'Mandate of Heaven'; Japanese emperors claimed descent from the sun goddess. In early modern Europe, King James I of England and the French bishop Bossuet argued for the 'divine right of kings'.

Decline: the theory was undermined by the separation of church and state, the rise of democracy and the idea that authority comes from the consent of the people. It remains important for showing the early link between religion and politics and the value of obedience and order.

Worked example

[4] State four features of the divine origin theory of the state. (Recall)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. The state is created by God - 1 mark.
2. The ruler is God's representative - 1 mark.
3. The ruler is accountable only to God; his power is unlimited - 1 mark.
4. Obedience is a religious duty; rebellion a sin; kingship hereditary - 1 mark.

Answer: According to the divine origin theory the state is created by God, and the ruler is God's representative on earth; the ruler is accountable only to God, so his power is not limited by the people; and obedience to him is a religious duty, rebellion being a sin, with the right to rule usually passing by inheritance.

Social contract theory: common features

1. State of nature: before the state there was a 'state of nature' in which people lived without government, law or political authority.
2. Natural law and natural rights: in that condition people were governed only by natural law (reason or instinct) and had certain natural rights.
3. Problems of the state of nature: for different reasons (fear, insecurity, inconvenience or inequality) the state of nature became unsatisfactory.
4. Contract: people agreed among themselves to give up some or all of their natural rights and create a political society and government.
5. Human creation: the state is therefore an artificial creation of human beings, not of God or of nature.
6. Consent: the authority of the state rests on the consent of the people.

The theory is linked with Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau, who agreed on this framework but disagreed on human nature, the state of nature and the kind of state that results.

Criticisms (useful for evaluation): there is no historical evidence of a state of nature or of such a contract; a contract cannot bind later generations who never agreed to it; and rights cannot exist before an organised society that recognises them. Its lasting value is the idea that legitimate government rests on consent.

Worked example

[4] State the common features of the social contract theory of the origin of the state. (Recall)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. A pre-political state of nature without government - 1 mark.
2. People governed by natural law with natural rights - 1 mark.
3. A contract to give up rights and create the state - 1 mark.
4. The state is a human creation based on consent - 1 mark.

Answer: Social contract theorists hold that before the state people lived in a state of nature without government, governed only by natural law and enjoying natural rights; that this condition became unsatisfactory, so people made a contract giving up some or all of their rights to create political society; and that the state is therefore a human creation whose authority rests on consent.

Thomas Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), an English thinker, wrote Leviathan (1651), during and after the English Civil War.

1. Human nature: selfish, competitive and driven by fear of death and desire for power.
2. State of nature: a condition of 'war of every man against every man', with no industry, culture or security; life was 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short'. There was no idea of right or wrong, just or unjust.
3. Reason for the contract: fear of violent death and the desire for self-preservation.
4. The contract: each person agreed with every other to surrender all natural rights to a sovereign (one person or an assembly), except the right to preserve one's life. The sovereign was not a party to the contract and so was bound by no conditions.
5. Sovereignty: absolute, unlimited, indivisible and permanent. The sovereign's command is law.
6. No right of rebellion: people may not resist the sovereign, because without him they would fall back into the state of nature. Only if the sovereign threatens a subject's life may the subject resist.
7. Government supported: absolute monarchy (though an assembly could be sovereign).

Worked example

[4] Explain Hobbes's view of human nature and the state of nature, and its result for the kind of state he supported. (Understanding)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Human nature selfish, competitive, fearful - 1 mark.
2. State of nature: war of all against all; life 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short' - 1 mark.
3. Contract: all rights surrendered to a sovereign not party to the contract - 1 mark.
4. Absolute sovereign; no right of rebellion; supports absolute monarchy - 1 mark.

Answer: Hobbes thought human beings were selfish, competitive and driven by fear, so the state of nature was a war of every man against every man in which life was 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short'. To escape it, people surrendered all their rights to a sovereign who was not a party to the contract. That sovereign was absolute and could not be lawfully resisted, so Hobbes supported absolute monarchy.

John Locke

John Locke (1632-1704), an English thinker, wrote Two Treatises of Government (1690), which defended the Glorious Revolution of 1688.

1. Human nature: rational, social and peace-loving.
2. State of nature: a state of peace, goodwill and mutual help, governed by natural law (reason). People had natural rights to life, liberty and property.
3. Inconveniences: there was no established, known law; no impartial judge to settle disputes; and no power to enforce just decisions. Each person was judge in his own case.
4. The contract: people agreed to form a civil society and set up a government. They gave up only the right to interpret and enforce natural law, not their natural rights.
5. Government as a trust: government exists to protect life, liberty and property; its power is limited by the purpose for which it was created.
6. Right to resist: if the government violates natural rights or betrays the trust, the people may resist and replace it.
7. Sovereignty: ultimately with the people; the legislature is the supreme organ of government but acts within limits. Government supported: limited, constitutional government based on consent, with majority rule.

Worked example

[4] State the main features of Locke's social contract theory. (Recall)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Human nature rational and social; state of nature peaceful under natural law - 1 mark.
2. Natural rights to life, liberty and property; inconveniences of no law, judge, enforcement - 1 mark.
3. Contract surrenders only the right to enforce natural law; government a trust - 1 mark.
4. Limited government; people can resist and replace it - 1 mark.

Answer: Locke saw human beings as rational and social, living in a peaceful state of nature under natural law, with rights to life, liberty and property. Because there was no known law, impartial judge or enforcing power, they made a contract giving up only the right to enforce natural law. Government holds power as a trust to protect these rights, its power is limited, and if it violates them the people may resist and replace it.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), born in Geneva, wrote The Social Contract (1762), which begins: 'Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.'

1. Human nature: naturally good, simple and free (later writers called this the 'noble savage', a phrase Rousseau did not use).
2. State of nature: at first an idyllic condition of freedom, equality and contentment, with few needs.
3. Decline: the growth of population, the discovery of agriculture and metals and especially private property created inequality, competition and conflict.
4. The contract: each individual surrendered all his rights not to a ruler but to the whole community. In return, each received the protection of the community and became an equal member of the sovereign body.
5. General Will: the sovereign is the General Will, the will of the community directed to the common good (as distinct from the 'will of all', a mere sum of private interests). By obeying the General Will, a person obeys his own real will and remains free.
6. Sovereignty: belongs to the people (popular sovereignty); it is absolute, inalienable, indivisible and cannot be represented.
7. Government supported: direct democracy, in which the people themselves make the laws; government is only an agent of the sovereign people.

Influence: his ideas of popular sovereignty and equality inspired the French Revolution.

Worked example

[4] Explain Rousseau's concept of the General Will and its importance in his theory. (Understanding)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

1. Each surrenders all rights to the community, not to a ruler - 1 mark.
2. General Will: will of the community aimed at the common good - 1 mark.
3. Different from the 'will of all' (sum of private interests) - 1 mark.
4. General Will is sovereign: popular sovereignty, direct democracy - 1 mark.

Answer: In Rousseau's contract each person surrenders all rights to the community as a whole, not to a ruler. The community's General Will is its will directed to the common good, unlike the 'will of all', which is merely the sum of private interests. The General Will is sovereign, so sovereignty belongs to the people, and Rousseau supported direct democracy in which the people make the laws.

The Origin of the State in real life

Each concept, met in an everyday situation. Read the situation, answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Topics in this chapter

• The Divine Origin Theory and the Social Contract Framework
• Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau Compared

The Origin of the State: key facts

Divine origin theory

God creates state; king God's agent; answerable to God only

Divine right of kings: James I, Bossuet.

Hobbes

Leviathan (1651); life 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short'

Absolute sovereign; no right to rebel.

Locke

Two Treatises of Government (1690); life, liberty, property

Limited government; right to resist.

Rousseau

The Social Contract (1762); 'Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains'

General Will; popular sovereignty.

Common frame

State of nature -> contract -> civil society and state

Authority rests on consent.

Governments supported

Hobbes: absolute monarchy; Locke: constitutional government; Rousseau: direct democracy

Compare on the same points.

How the school exam asks The Origin of the State

The question patterns to expect, and the method that works for each.

Tricks to remember The Origin of the State

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

• Human nature: 'Bad - Good-ish - Good'

  Hobbes: selfish; Locke: rational and social; Rousseau: naturally good.

  Use it when: First point of any comparison.

• Sovereign: 'King - Parliament (people) - People'

  Hobbes: absolute sovereign; Locke: limited government, people ultimately; Rousseau: General Will.

  Use it when: Where sovereignty lies.

• Locke's rights: 'L-L-P'

  Life, Liberty, Property.

  Use it when: Natural rights.

The Origin of the State: exam-level solved questions

Ordered from exam level to HOTS. Cover the solution, write your own, then compare step by step.

Case-study practice (Section D style)

Read the situation, then answer every part. In a school exam set on the board pattern this is a 8-mark question split into 2 + 1 + 1 + 4 marks.

Where the marks are

How a typical answer is split into step marks. Show every step: a right final answer alone rarely earns full marks.

Where students lose marks in The Origin of the State

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

• ✗Mistake: Mixing up the thinkers' views of the state of nature

  The three are learnt together and blur.

  Wrong working

  Locke's state of nature was a war of all against all.

  Right working

  Hobbes: war; Locke: peace with inconveniences; Rousseau: happy until property.

  ✓Do this: Use 'Bad - Good-ish - Good'.

  Usually costs: 1-2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Writing criticisms when only features are asked

  The syllabus says 'features only'.

  ✓Do this: Give features; add criticism only if the question asks you to evaluate.

  Usually costs: Time and marks lost.

• ✗Mistake: Comparisons written thinker by thinker without matching points

  Comparison questions reward point-by-point matching on the same headings.

  ✓Do this: Compare all three on each heading.

  Usually costs: 2 marks.

• ✗Mistake: Calling Hobbes's sovereign a party to the contract

  A common confusion.

  ✓Do this: The contract is among the people; the sovereign stands outside it.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

• ✗Mistake: Confusing General Will with majority vote

  Both seem to be 'what people want'.

  ✓Do this: General Will aims at the common good; a majority may express only the will of all.

  Usually costs: 1 mark.

Practice questions on The Origin of the State

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

1. Q1 · 1 mark · Very short answerExam level

   Which theory holds that the king is responsible only to God?

   Hint

   Oldest theory.

   Answer

   The divine origin theory (divine right of kings).

2. Q2 · 1 mark · Very short answerExam level

   Name Locke's work of 1690 on government.

   Hint

   Two parts.

   Answer

   Two Treatises of Government.

3. Q3 · 1 mark · MCQExam level

   According to Rousseau, sovereignty lies in:
   (a) The king
   (b) The legislature
   (c) The General Will
   (d) The Church

   Hint

   Will of the community.

   Answer

   (c) The General Will.

4. Q4 · 1 mark · Very short answerHarder exam level

   Which three 'inconveniences' of the state of nature did Locke identify?

   Hint

   Law, judge, power.

   Answer

   No established law, no impartial judge and no power to enforce decisions.

5. Q5 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   [4] Explain why the divine origin theory declined.

   Hint

   Church, democracy, consent, science.

   Answer

   (1) Separation of church and state reduced religious authority over politics. (2) The rise of democracy put the source of authority in the people. (3) Social contract thinkers argued that power rests on consent. (4) Rational and scientific thinking questioned claims of divine appointment and made unlimited power seem dangerous.

6. Q6 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   [4] Explain Hobbes's view of sovereignty.

   Hint

   Absolute, indivisible, no rebellion.

   Answer

   (1) The sovereign receives all the rights surrendered by the people. (2) Sovereignty is absolute, unlimited, indivisible and permanent. (3) The sovereign is not a party to the contract, so he is bound by no conditions; his command is law. (4) Subjects may not rebel, except to save their own lives.

7. Q7 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder exam level

   [4] Distinguish between the General Will and the will of all.

   Hint

   Common good versus private interests.

   Answer

   (1) The General Will aims at the common good of the whole community. (2) The will of all is the sum of the private wills and interests of individuals. (3) The General Will is always right and is the sovereign; the will of all may be selfish and mistaken. (4) Obeying the General Will is obeying one's own real will, so it preserves freedom.

8. Q8 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   [4] Which thinker's ideas are closest to the Indian Constitution? Justify.

   Hint

   Rights, limited government, people.

   Answer

   Locke's, largely. (1) The Constitution guarantees fundamental rights, as Locke's government protects natural rights. (2) It limits government through a written constitution and judicial review. (3) The Preamble says 'We, the people', so authority rests on consent. (4) But it is a representative, not direct, democracy (unlike Rousseau) and not absolute (unlike Hobbes).

9. Q9 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency

   [4] 'Hobbes's state of nature explains why people tolerate even harsh governments.' Discuss.

   Hint

   Fear of chaos.

   Answer

   (1) Hobbes argued that life without government would be a war of all against all. (2) People fear disorder more than oppression. (3) So they may accept harsh rulers who guarantee security, as many have done after civil wars. (4) But Locke would reply that a government that violates basic rights loses its claim to obedience; history also shows people rebelling against tyranny.

10. Q10 · 8 marks · Long answerHarder exam level

    [8] (a) State the features of the divine origin theory. [4]
    (b) State the main features of Locke's version of the social contract. [4]

    Hint

    Four each.

    Answer

    (a) (1) State created by God. (2) Ruler God's representative. (3) Ruler responsible only to God; unlimited power. (4) Obedience a religious duty; rebellion a sin; hereditary rule. (b) (1) Human nature rational and social; peaceful state of nature under natural law. (2) Natural rights to life, liberty and property; inconveniences of no law, judge or enforcement. (3) Contract surrenders only the right to enforce natural law; government a trust. (4) Limited government; people may resist and replace it.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1. 1.Which English king argued for the divine right of kings?Show answer

   James I.

2. 2.When was Leviathan published?Show answer

   1651.

3. 3.What did Locke's people surrender in the contract?Show answer

   Only the right to interpret and enforce natural law.

4. 4.What is the opening line of The Social Contract?Show answer

   'Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.'

5. 5.What form of government did Rousseau favour?Show answer

   Direct democracy.

6. 6.What did Rousseau blame for the end of the happy state of nature?Show answer

   Private property and the inequality it created.

Quick revision checklist

The night before the exam: can you do each of these without looking?

• ☐Divine: God creates state; king God's agent; answerable to God; obedience a duty; hereditary.
• ☐Contract: state of nature; natural law and rights; contract; state a human creation; consent.
• ☐Hobbes (1651): selfish man; war of all; all rights to absolute sovereign; no rebellion; absolute monarchy.
• ☐Locke (1690): rational man; peaceful but inconvenient; life, liberty, property; limited trust; right to resist.
• ☐Rousseau (1762): good man; property corrupts; all rights to community; General Will; direct democracy.

The Origin of the State: frequently asked questions