Sources of History Class 9: Literary, Archaeological, Epigraphic and Numismatic
Updated 17 October 2026 · Fact-checked
Historians use four kinds of sources: literary (texts, travelogues, oral traditions), archaeological (monuments and material remains), epigraphic (inscriptions on stone, metal or rock) and numismatic (coins and currency). India's own tradition of preserving the past is the Itihasa-purana tradition, while ideas such as the Panchamahabhutas, vasudhaiva kutumbakam and the Arthashastra show early Indian thinking about nature and society.
Notice that every kind of source feeds into History: historians combine texts, remains, inscriptions and coins to build evidence-based explanations.
Illustration drawn for QuestionBuddy.
Understand Sources of History and Indian Traditions of Inquiry
History is the study of the human past: people's experiences, values and changes over time. The chapter makes three points.
1. The itihāsa-purāṇa tradition is one of the oldest ways of preserving cultural memory in Bharat. Through stories it shares historical information and gives cultural meaning to events, reinforcing ideals and a sense of identity.
2. Modern historiography relies more on empirical evidence (information from actual observation or experiment) and uses tools such as human genetics, carbon-14 dating and archaeology to fix timelines.
3. Sources are of many kinds.
Four kinds of sources.
- Literary: travelogues, memoirs, letters, genealogical records, folklore, oral traditions and revenue documents (for example a Sāmaveda manuscript, or a palm-leaf manuscript of the Tirukkuṟaḷ).
- Archaeological: material remains such as monuments, excavated sites, artefacts and art (for example a terracotta figurine from the Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation).
- Epigraphic: texts inscribed on stone, metal plates or rock (for example a Brahmi inscription from the Gupta period).
- Numismatic: coins, currency and medals (for example a coin of Samudragupta, 4th century CE, or a Jahangir coin showing Sagittarius).
By combining many sources, historians build explanations supported by evidence.
Indian traditions of inquiry. Early thinkers valued discussion, questioning and reasoning. Three ideas are named.
- Pañchamahābhūtas (five great elements): Pṛithvī (earth), Āpaḥ (water), Agni (fire), Vāyu (air) and Ākāśha (space). They describe nature as an interconnected system in which human life is embedded, and help explain how the environment shapes settlements, occupations, architecture, food habits and health practices.
- Vasudhaiva kuṭumbakam: "the world is one family". It expresses the interconnectedness of societies across regions and cultures.
- Arthaśhāstra, attributed to Kauṭilya and composed about 2,300 years ago. It examined administration, economic management, taxation and the duties of rulers towards their people.
Systematic thinking about governance and the economy therefore existed long before modern academic disciplines, and modern Social Science continues this legacy with new tools.
Linking disciplines. Geography's tools (maps, GIS) and History's sources work together: for example, mapping the findspots of coins and inscriptions can show trade routes and the spread of kingdoms. (This is an illustration of how disciplines combine, not a claim from a specific source.)
Sources of History and Indian Traditions of Inquiry: key facts
- Four kinds of sources
Literary texts, travelogues, oral traditions Archaeological monuments, artefacts, sites Epigraphic inscriptions on stone, metal, rock Numismatic coins, currency, medals - Match example to type.
- Examples of sources
Samaveda manuscript literary Terracotta figurine archaeological Brahmi inscription epigraphic Coin of Samudragupta numismatic - Chapter examples.
- Five great elements
Prithvi earth Apah water Agni fire Vayu air Akasha space - Nature as an interconnected system.
- Indian ideas
Vasudhaiva kutumbakam world is one family Arthashastra Kautilya, about 2,300 years ago Itihasa-purana cultural memory - Traditions of inquiry.
- Modern historiography
- Empirical evidence
- Genetics
- Carbon-14 dating
- Archaeology
- Tools for timelines.
How to answer Sources of History and Indian Traditions of Inquiry questions
Questions ask you to classify an object as a source type, explain why multiple sources are needed, describe Indian traditions of inquiry and link the five elements to environment and society.
- 1Identify what the object is made of: written text (literary), remains (archaeological), carved or engraved writing (epigraphic) or coin (numismatic).
- 2Give the type, the reason and what it can tell historians.
- 3For "why many sources", say that each fills the gaps of others and allows cross-checking.
- 4For Indian traditions, give name, meaning and one use or lesson.
- 5Close with the link between tradition and modern Social Science.
Sources of History and Indian Traditions of Inquiry in real life
The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.
A family history project
Suppose a student reconstructs her family history using her grandmother's letters, an old house, a land deed engraved on a metal plate and old coins found in a pot.
Classify each as a type of source.
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- Letters: literary.
- The old house: archaeological (material remains).
- The engraved metal plate: epigraphic.
- Coins: numismatic.
Answer: The letters are literary, the house is archaeological, the engraved plate is epigraphic and the coins are numismatic. Together they give a fuller picture than any single source.
Memory hook: Words, remains, engravings, coins.
Two accounts of one event
Suppose two travellers describe the same market differently, and an excavated weight and a coin confirm part of what one traveller said.
Why do historians compare sources?
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- Individual accounts may be incomplete or differ.
- Material remains can confirm or question what texts say.
- Combining sources builds explanations supported by evidence.
Answer: Historians compare sources because each has gaps or views; physical remains can confirm or question written accounts, producing explanations based on evidence.
Memory hook: Cross-check to be sure.
Tricks to remember Sources of History and Indian Traditions of Inquiry
Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.
Sources: L-A-E-N
Literary, Archaeological, Epigraphic, Numismatic: "Let All Eager Nerds learn".
Use it when: Four types.
Epi = on top, graph = write
Epigraphic = writing carved on a surface; Numis = coin.
Use it when: Word roots.
Five elements: P-A-A-V-A
Prithvi, Apah, Agni, Vayu, Akasha.
Use it when: Pañchamahābhūtas.
Sources of History and Indian Traditions of Inquiry: solved examples
Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.
Example 1: Type of source · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
A Brahmi inscription of the Gupta period belongs to which kind of source?
(a) Literary
(b) Epigraphic
(c) Numismatic
(d) Oral
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- Text engraved on stone or metal is epigraphic (1 mark).
Answer: (b) Epigraphic
Example 2: Numismatic (2 marks) · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level
What are numismatic sources? Give one example from the chapter. (2 marks)
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- Coins, currency and medals (1 mark).
- Example: a coin of Samudragupta (4th century CE) or a Jahangir coin (1 mark).
Answer: Numismatic sources are coins, currency and medals. One example is a coin of Samudragupta from the 4th century CE.
Example 3: Panchamahabhutas (3 marks) · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Name the five great elements and explain what the idea tells us about nature and human life. (3 marks)
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- Earth, water, fire, air and space (1 mark).
- Nature is an interconnected system in which human life is embedded (1 mark).
- Environment shapes settlements, occupations, architecture, food habits and health practices (1 mark).
Answer: The five great elements are earth (Pṛithvī), water (Āpaḥ), fire (Agni), air (Vāyu) and space (Ākāśha). The idea describes nature as an interconnected system in which human life is embedded. It helps explain how the environment shapes settlements, occupations, architecture, food habits and health practices.
Example 4: Assertion-reason: oral and written · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): Folklore and oral traditions are treated as literary sources in the chapter.
Reason (R): The chapter lists folklore and oral traditions along with travelogues, memoirs and letters.
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- The chapter's list of literary sources includes these; R explains A (1 mark).
Answer: (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
Example 5: Why many sources (5 marks) · 5 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency
Explain why historians use many kinds of sources, with one example of each kind, and how modern tools help fix timelines. (5 marks)
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- No single source tells the whole story; each fills gaps and allows cross-checking (1 mark).
- Literary: letters, travelogues, a Sāmaveda manuscript (1 mark).
- Archaeological: a terracotta figurine of the Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation; epigraphic: a Brahmi inscription (1 mark).
- Numismatic: a coin of Samudragupta (1 mark).
- Modern tools: human genetics, carbon-14 dating and archaeology help fix timelines (1 mark).
Answer: Historians use many kinds of sources because no single source gives the whole picture; each fills gaps and allows cross-checking. Literary sources include travelogues, letters and manuscripts such as a Sāmaveda manuscript. Archaeological sources include material remains such as a terracotta figurine from the Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation, and epigraphic sources include texts engraved on stone or metal, such as a Brahmi inscription of the Gupta period. Numismatic sources include coins, such as one of Samudragupta. Modern historiography also uses tools like human genetics, carbon-14 dating and archaeology to fix timelines.
Example 6: Case: the Arthashastra · 4 marks · Case-basedHOTS / competency
Read the case and answer the questions.
A teacher tells the class that a text attributed to Kautilya, composed about 2,300 years ago, discusses taxation, administration and the duties of rulers to their people.
(i) Name the text. (1)
(ii) What does it show about thinking on governance in early India? (1)
(iii) How does this link to the idea of rājadharma, and what kind of source is the text? (2)
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- (i) Arthaśhāstra (1 mark).
- (ii) Systematic thinking on governance and the economy existed long before modern disciplines (1 mark).
- (iii) Rājadharma is the ruler's duty to the people; the text is a literary source (2 marks).
Answer: (i) The Arthaśhāstra. (ii) It shows that systematic thinking about governance and economic management existed long before modern academic disciplines. (iii) Rājadharma means what a ruler owes the people, which the text examines, and the text itself is a literary source.
Where students lose marks in Sources of History and Indian Traditions of Inquiry
The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.
Mistake: Wrong type for inscriptions
Calling them literary or archaeological only.
Wrong working
Inscriptions are archaeological sources.
Right working
Inscriptions are epigraphic sources.
Do this: Word root: epigraph.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Missing "empirical evidence"
Vague description.
Wrong working
Modern history relies on guesswork.
Right working
It relies on empirical evidence and scientific tools.
Do this: Use the key term.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Confusing the elements
Listing wrongly.
Wrong working
Elements are earth, water, fire, air and wood.
Right working
Earth, water, fire, air and space.
Do this: Learn P-A-A-V-A.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Attributing Arthashastra wrongly
Name mix.
Wrong working
Arthashastra was written by Ashoka.
Right working
It is attributed to Kautilya.
Do this: One author name.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Exam tips
- Match each source to the material: written text, remains, engraving, coin.
- Quote one NCERT example for each type of source.
- In "why many sources" answers, include cross-checking and gaps.
- Use the term "attributed to" for Kautilya and the Arthashastra.
Practice questions on Sources of History and Indian Traditions of Inquiry
Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.
Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
A terracotta figurine from the Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation is an example of which source?
(a) Archaeological
(b) Epigraphic
(c) Literary
(d) NumismaticHint
Material remains.
Answer
(a) Archaeological
Q2 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level
What does "vasudhaiva kuṭumbakam" mean and what does it express? (2 marks)
Hint
One family.
Answer
It means "the world is one family". It expresses the interconnectedness of societies across regions and cultures.
Q3 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Differentiate between epigraphic and literary sources with an example each. (3 marks)
Hint
Carved versus written.
Answer
Epigraphic sources are texts inscribed on hard materials such as stone, metal plates or rock; a Brahmi inscription of the Gupta period is an example. Literary sources are written or oral texts such as travelogues, memoirs, letters, folklore and manuscripts; a Sāmaveda manuscript is an example.
Q4 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): Modern historians rely on empirical evidence.
Reason (R): They use tools like carbon-14 dating, genetics and archaeology.
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.Hint
Tools of evidence.
Answer
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
Q5 · 5 marks · Long answerHarder board level
Describe the itihāsa-purāṇa tradition and the role of modern historiography in studying the past. (5 marks)
Hint
Cultural memory; stories; empirical evidence.
Answer
The itihāsa-purāṇa tradition is one of the oldest ways of preserving cultural memory in Bharat. Through stories it shares historical information and gives cultural meaning to events, reinforcing ideals and a sense of identity. Modern historiography relies more on empirical evidence, information from actual observation or experiment, and uses tools such as human genetics, carbon-14 dating and archaeology to fix timelines. Together, the traditional and modern approaches give both meaning and evidence, and historians use many types of sources to build explanations.
Q6 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
Suppose a museum shows a coin, an engraved copper plate and a travel diary from the same period. A student says the coin alone is enough to write the history of that period. Evaluate her claim. (3 marks)
Hint
Multiple sources.
Answer
The claim is weak. A coin is a numismatic source and can show ruler, metal and design, but not everything about society or events. The copper plate (epigraphic) and diary (literary) can add records, names and descriptions. Combining sources fills gaps and allows cross-checking, giving explanations supported by evidence.
Test your recall
Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.
1.What are epigraphic sources?Show answer
Texts inscribed on stone, metal plates or rock.
2.What are numismatic sources?Show answer
Coins, currency and medals.
3.Who is the Arthashastra attributed to?Show answer
Kautilya.
4.What does Akasha stand for?Show answer
Space.
5.What does the itihasa-purana tradition preserve?Show answer
Cultural memory through stories.
Sources of History and Indian Traditions of Inquiry: frequently asked questions
What are the types of sources of history?
Literary, archaeological, epigraphic and numismatic.
What is the itihasa-purana tradition?
One of the oldest ways of preserving cultural memory in Bharat, through stories that give cultural meaning to events.
What are the Panchamahabhutas?
The five great elements: earth, water, fire, air and space.
What is the Arthashastra?
A text attributed to Kautilya, about 2,300 years old, on administration, economic management, taxation and rulers' duties.