CBSE Class 12 · India's External Relations

India's Nuclear Policy and Shifting Alliances (Class 12 Political Science, Politics in India since Independence, Chapter 4)

Updated 17 October 2026 · Fact-checked

India began a nuclear programme in the late 1940s under Homi J. Bhabha for peaceful energy, and treated the 1968 NPT as discriminatory. It conducted a test in May 1974, called a peaceful explosion, and a series of tests in May 1998. India's doctrine is credible minimum deterrence with no first use. Since 1977 its alliances have shifted towards closer ties with China and the US.

Understand India's Nuclear Policy, the 1974 and 1998 Tests and Shifting Alliances

Why this topic matters. The last parts of the external relations chapter ask why India opposed the NPT, what the 1974 and 1998 tests were, what the doctrine says and how foreign policy shifted after 1977 and 1990. Present positions as 'India argued...' and avoid judging any government.

1. Origin of the programme.

NCERT says Nehru had faith in science and technology for building a modern India; the nuclear programme began in the late 1940s under Homi J. Bhabha as part of industrialisation.
India wanted atomic energy for peaceful purposes; Nehru was against nuclear weapons and pleaded with the superpowers for comprehensive nuclear disarmament, yet arsenals kept rising.

2. NPT, 1968.

Communist China conducted nuclear tests in October 1964. The five nuclear weapon powers, the US, USSR, UK, France and China (Taiwan then represented China), also the five Permanent Members of the Security Council, tried to impose the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 on the rest of the world.
India always considered the NPT discriminatory and refused to sign it.

3. The first test, May 1974.

India's first nuclear test was termed a peaceful explosion; India argued it was committed to using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.
Domestic setting: after the Arab-Israel War of 1973, the Oil Shock (massive hike in oil prices by the Arab nations) caused economic turmoil and high inflation in India, and many agitations, including a nationwide railway strike, were under way.

4. 1995 to 1998.

India opposed international non-proliferation treaties because they applied selectively to non-nuclear powers and legitimised the monopoly of the five nuclear weapon powers. It opposed the indefinite extension of the NPT in 1995 and refused to sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
India conducted a series of tests in May 1998, demonstrating capacity to use nuclear energy for military purposes; Pakistan soon followed, raising the vulnerability of the region to a nuclear exchange.
The international community was critical, and sanctions were imposed on both countries, later waived.
Doctrine: credible minimum nuclear deterrence, no first use, and commitment to global, verifiable and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament leading to a nuclear-weapons-free world.

5. Consensus in foreign policy. NCERT observes that parties differ only in minor ways about conducting external relations; there is broad agreement on national integration, protection of international boundaries and national interest. During 1962-1971, when India faced three wars, and later when different parties came to power, foreign policy played a limited role in party politics.

6. Shifting alliances.

In 1977 the Janata Party government announced it would follow 'genuine non-alignment', meaning the pro-Soviet tilt would be corrected.
Since then all governments, Congress or non-Congress, have taken initiatives to restore better relations with China and enter close ties with the US.
NCERT says Indian foreign policy is linked in popular mind to two questions: stand towards Pakistan and Indo-US relations. After 1990 the ruling parties have often been criticised (by some) for a pro-US policy.
Reasons given: after 1990 Russia, still an important friend, lost its global pre-eminence; foreign policy follows national interest; contemporary international situation is more influenced by economic than military interests.
India-Pakistan: Kashmir remains the main issue, yet cultural exchanges, movement of citizens, economic cooperation, a train and a bus service have been encouraged; the near-war of 1999 was a setback, but efforts for durable peace continue.

Graph checklist. A timeline: late 1940s programme, 1964 China test, 1968 NPT, 1974, 1995, 1998, with India's stated position at each point.

Key quotations

Short lines worth knowing by heart: who says them, when, and why they matter.

India always considered the NPT as discriminatory and had refused to sign it.
NCERT, Politics in India since Independence, Chapter 4: On the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty of 1968.
States India's position in the government's own account.

India's Nuclear Policy, the 1974 and 1998 Tests and Shifting Alliances: key facts

Nuclear timeline: Late 1940s programme under Bhabha
Oct 1964 China test
1968 NPT
May 1974 peaceful explosion
1995 NPT extension opposed
May 1998 tests; CTBT refused.
Five nuclear weapon powers in NPT: US
USSR
UK
France
China; Also the five Permanent Members of the UN Security Council.
Doctrine: Credible minimum nuclear deterrence
No first use
Global verifiable non-discriminatory disarmament; Stated in NCERT's Fast Forward box.
Shifts in foreign policy: 1977 Janata genuine non-alignment
Better relations with China
Close ties with US
After 1990 Russia less pre-eminent; Foreign policy limited role in party politics.

How to answer India's Nuclear Policy, the 1974 and 1998 Tests and Shifting Alliances questions

Use timeline plus stated reasons. Keep each claim attributed: 'India argued', 'NCERT states', 'critics said'.

1Begin with the peaceful purpose of the programme and Nehru's call for disarmament.
2Explain why India considered the NPT discriminatory.
3Give 1974 (peaceful explosion), 1995 stand, 1998 tests and the reaction (sanctions, later waived).
4State the doctrine in three phrases.
5End with broad consensus and the 1977 and post-1990 shifts, attributing criticism.

India's Nuclear Policy, the 1974 and 1998 Tests and Shifting Alliances in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

A rule that binds some but not others

Suppose five students in a class are exempt from a new rule limiting what everyone can carry, while the rest must comply, and the rest argue the rule is unfair.

Which Indian argument about treaties does this parallel?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

NCERT says India opposed non-proliferation treaties as they applied selectively to non-nuclear powers.
They legitimised the monopoly of the five nuclear weapon powers.

Answer: It parallels India's argument that the NPT was discriminatory, binding the non-nuclear powers while legitimising five.

Memory hook: Same rule, unequal burden.

Foreign policy after a global change

Suppose a family's old close friend moves away and loses influence while newer friends become more useful for business, so the family's closest ties gradually change.

Which NCERT explanation of India's post-1990 policy shift is similar?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

After 1990 Russia, though still an important friend, lost its global pre-eminence.
NCERT adds that contemporary international relations are shaped more by economic than military interests.

Answer: It parallels the shift in India's foreign policy after 1990 as Russia's pre-eminence declined and economic interests grew.

Memory hook: When the world changes, ties re-tune.

Tricks to remember India's Nuclear Policy, the 1974 and 1998 Tests and Shifting Alliances

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

64-68-74-98
China test 1964, NPT 1968, India 1974, India 1998.
Use it when: Nuclear dates.
CMD-NFU
Credible Minimum Deterrence, No First Use.
Use it when: India's doctrine.
P5 = NPT
The five nuclear powers were the five permanent members.
Use it when: Who the NPT favoured.
1977 genuine
Janata in 1977: genuine non-alignment.
Use it when: Foreign policy shift.

India's Nuclear Policy, the 1974 and 1998 Tests and Shifting Alliances: solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Who led the nuclear programme · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

India's nuclear programme, begun in the late 1940s, was initiated under the guidance of:
(A) Vikram Sarabhai
(B) Homi J. Bhabha
(C) C. V. Raman
(D) S. Chandrasekhar

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

NCERT: the nuclear programme was initiated in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi J. Bhabha (1 mark).

Answer: (B) Homi J. Bhabha

Example 2: Why India opposed the NPT · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

State any two reasons for India's opposition to the NPT, as given in NCERT. (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

India considered it discriminatory (1 mark).
It applied selectively to non-nuclear powers and legitimised the monopoly of the five nuclear weapon powers (1 mark).

Answer: India considered the NPT discriminatory. NCERT adds that non-proliferation treaties applied selectively to the non-nuclear powers and legitimised the monopoly of the five nuclear weapon powers.

Example 3: Assertion and reason on the 1974 test · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

Assertion (A): India's 1974 nuclear test was described by India as a peaceful explosion.
Reason (R): India argued that it was committed to using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.
(A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(C) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(D) (A) is false but (R) is true.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

NCERT reports the label and India's stated commitment; the commitment is the reasoning given for the label (1 mark).

Answer: (A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Example 4: Domestic context of 1974 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level

Describe the economic and political situation in India in 1974 when the first nuclear test was conducted, according to NCERT. (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

After the Arab-Israel War of 1973 the world was hit by the Oil Shock, a massive hike in oil prices by the Arab nations (1 mark).
This led to economic turmoil and high inflation in India (1 mark).
Many agitations were going on, including a nationwide railway strike (1 mark).
NCERT calls it a difficult period in domestic politics (1 mark).

Answer: NCERT describes 1974 as a difficult period in domestic politics. Following the Arab-Israel War of 1973 the world was affected by the Oil Shock, caused by a massive hike in oil prices by the Arab nations. This produced economic turmoil and high inflation in India. Many agitations were also going on in the country, including a nationwide railway strike.

Example 5: Source-based: the 1998 tests · 4 marks · Source-basedHarder board level

Read the passage: "India has opposed the international treaties aimed at non-proliferation since they were selectively applicable to the non-nuclear powers and legitimised the monopoly of the five nuclear weapons powers. Thus, India opposed the indefinite extension of the NPT in 1995 and also refused to sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998. Pakistan soon followed. Sanctions were imposed on both India and Pakistan, which were subsequently waived. India's nuclear doctrine of credible minimum nuclear deterrence professes no first use."
(i) Which treaty did India refuse to sign, as per the passage?
(A) NPT (B) Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (C) Indus Waters Treaty (D) Tashkent Agreement
(ii) In which month and year did India conduct its series of tests?
(A) May 1974 (B) May 1998 (C) October 1964 (D) August 1971
(iii) What happened to the sanctions subsequently?
(A) They were made permanent (B) They were waived (C) They were doubled (D) They were not imposed
(iv) What does the doctrine profess?
(A) First use only (B) No first use (C) Maximum deterrence (D) Pre-emptive attack
Choose the correct option for each.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

(i) Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, so (B) (1 mark).
(ii) May 1998, so (B) (1 mark).
(iii) Waived, so (B) (1 mark).
(iv) No first use, so (B) (1 mark).

Answer: (i) B; (ii) B; (iii) B; (iv) B

Example 6: HOTS: broad consensus and shifting alliances · 6 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

NCERT says that foreign policy has played only a limited role in party politics, yet India's alliances have shifted since 1977. Discuss, giving reasons from NCERT and attributing any criticism to those who made it. (6 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Broad agreement among parties on national integration, protection of boundaries and national interest; limited role in party politics even during three wars in 1962-1971 (2 marks).
1977: Janata government announced genuine non-alignment and a correction of the pro-Soviet tilt (1 mark).
Since then all governments have restored better relations with China and entered close ties with the US (1 mark).
After 1990 Russia lost global pre-eminence; foreign policy follows national interest; economic interests matter more (1 mark).
Ruling parties have often been criticised for a pro-US policy; Kashmir remains the main India-Pakistan issue (1 mark).

Answer: NCERT points out that there are only minor differences among political parties about conducting external relations. There is broad agreement on national integration, protection of international boundaries and questions of national interest. During 1962-1971, when India faced three wars, and later when different parties came to power, foreign policy played a limited role in party politics.

Alliances nevertheless changed. In 1977 the Janata Party government announced that it would follow genuine non-alignment, which implied correcting the pro-Soviet tilt. Since then governments of every colour have tried to restore better relations with China and to build close ties with the US. NCERT explains that foreign policy is dictated by national interest. After 1990 Russia, though still an important friend, lost its global pre-eminence, and the contemporary situation is shaped more by economic than military interests. It notes that in the post-1990 period the ruling parties have often been criticised for a pro-US foreign policy; this is reported as a criticism made by some, not as the book's own verdict. Relations with Pakistan remain a second constant question, with Kashmir the main issue and efforts, such as the train and bus services, to normalise ties.

Where students lose marks in India's Nuclear Policy, the 1974 and 1998 Tests and Shifting Alliances

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

Mistake: Saying the 1974 test was a weapons test
Mixed with 1998.
Wrong working
India declared itself a nuclear weapon state in 1974.
Right working
The 1974 test was termed a peaceful explosion; the 1998 series demonstrated military capacity.
Do this: 1974 peaceful, 1998 military capacity.
Usually costs: 1 to 2 marks.
Mistake: Forgetting to attribute criticism
Opinion written as fact.
Wrong working
India's policy after 1990 is pro-US and wrong.
Right working
Ruling parties have often been criticised for a pro-US policy; NCERT explains it as national interest and economic priorities.
Do this: Use 'has been criticised by...'.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Writing that India signed the CTBT
Confusing test ban with moratorium.
Wrong working
India signed the CTBT after 1998.
Right working
NCERT says India refused to sign the CTBT.
Do this: Keep NPT and CTBT together as refused.
Usually costs: 1 mark.

Exam tips

Quote India's reasons for opposing the NPT in two points: discriminatory, legitimised monopoly.
Remember that sanctions were imposed on both India and Pakistan and later waived.
When writing on alliances, attribute criticism and avoid evaluating governments.
Always give the three parts of the doctrine.

Practice questions on India's Nuclear Policy, the 1974 and 1998 Tests and Shifting Alliances

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
Which of these is NOT one of the five nuclear weapon powers recognised under the NPT of 1968, as listed in NCERT?
(A) France
(B) China
(C) India
(D) The United Kingdom
Hint
US, USSR, UK, France, China.
Answer
(C) India.
Q2 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level
What are the three elements of India's nuclear doctrine mentioned in NCERT? (2 marks)
Hint
Deterrence, first use, disarmament.
Answer
Credible minimum nuclear deterrence; no first use; and commitment to global, verifiable and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament leading to a nuclear weapons free world.
Q3 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): Pakistan's tests soon after India's in May 1998 increased the vulnerability of the region.
Reason (R): The international community imposed sanctions on both countries.
(A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(C) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(D) (A) is false but (R) is true.
Hint
Why did vulnerability rise?
Answer
(B) Both are true but R does not explain A: vulnerability to a nuclear exchange increased because Pakistan followed India's tests; sanctions were an international reaction.
Q4 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level
China tested in October 1964, the NPT came in 1968, India tested in May 1974 and again in May 1998. Find the gap (in years) between the China test and India's first test, and between India's two testing episodes. (4 marks)
Hint
1974 - 1964 and 1998 - 1974.
Answer
1974 - 1964 = 10 years in calendar years from the Chinese test to India's first test. 1998 - 1974 = 24 years between India's two testing episodes. NCERT says that the first test was termed a peaceful explosion and the 1998 series demonstrated capacity for military use.
Q5 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Why is India's nuclear policy described by NCERT as linked to Nehru's views on science and technology? (4 marks)
Hint
Industrialisation, peaceful atom, disarmament.
Answer
Nehru had always put his faith in science and technology for rapidly building a modern India. A significant component of his industrialisation plans was the nuclear programme initiated in the late 1940s under Homi J. Bhabha. India wanted atomic energy for peaceful purposes. Nehru was against nuclear weapons and pleaded with the superpowers for comprehensive nuclear disarmament.
Q6 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
Critics and supporters of India's closer ties with the US after 1990 give different reasons. Using NCERT, present the explanation given for the shift, and say who has criticised it, without taking sides. (4 marks)
Hint
Russia's decline, economic interests, ruling parties criticised.
Answer
NCERT explains that foreign policy is dictated by national interest. After 1990 Russia, though still an important friend, lost its global pre-eminence, so India's policy shifted towards a more pro-US strategy, and contemporary international relations are more influenced by economic interests. NCERT notes that ruling parties have often been criticised for this pro-US foreign policy; the critics are described only as those who criticised it, and the book adds that all governments, Congress or non-Congress, have taken initiatives for closer ties with the US.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1.Who guided the nuclear programme begun in the late 1940s?Show answer
Homi J. Bhabha.
2.In which year did India oppose the indefinite extension of the NPT?Show answer
1995.
3.Which Arab-Israel war preceded the Oil Shock mentioned in the 1974 context?Show answer
The Arab-Israel War of 1973.
4.Which government announced genuine non-alignment in 1977?Show answer
The Janata Party government.
5.What was done to the sanctions on India and Pakistan after the 1998 tests?Show answer
They were subsequently waived.

India's Nuclear Policy, the 1974 and 1998 Tests and Shifting Alliances: frequently asked questions

Why did India call the 1974 test a peaceful explosion?

India argued that it was committed to using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.

Who were the five nuclear weapon powers in the NPT?

The US, USSR, UK, France and China (Taiwan then represented China).

What does 'no first use' mean in India's doctrine?

India professes that it will not be the first to use nuclear weapons; NCERT states the doctrine of credible minimum deterrence professes no first use.

Is there party disagreement over foreign policy?

Only minor differences; NCERT notes broad agreement on national integration, boundaries and national interest.