CBSE Class 12 · Environment and Natural Resources

Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and India's Stand (Class 12 Political Science)

Updated 16 October 2026 · Fact-checked

Common but differentiated responsibilities is the principle, accepted in the 1992 Rio Declaration, that all states must protect the environment but developed countries bear greater responsibility, because they caused most historical emissions and command more money and technology. India relies on it to argue that developed countries must lead in cutting greenhouse gases.

All states share the goal of protecting the Earth, but the North's heavier past emissions and resources give it the heavier load.

Illustration drawn for QuestionBuddy.

Understand Common but Differentiated Responsibilities

Why this topic matters. This is the most analytical part of Chapter 6 and carries 6-mark questions: explain the principle, India's stand on environmental issues, or the steps India has taken. NCERT sections: 'Common but differentiated responsibilities', 'Common property resources' (with the sacred groves box) and 'India's stand on environmental issues'.

1. The North-South argument.

Developed North	Developing South
Discuss the environment as it stands now	Most degradation is the product of industrial development by the developed countries
Everyone equally responsible for conservation	Those who caused more damage must take more responsibility for undoing it
Same rules for all	Developing countries are still industrialising and must not face the same restrictions

The South's argument was accepted in the Rio Declaration (1992) as the principle of 'common but differentiated responsibilities' (CBDR).

2. What the texts say.

Rio Declaration: states shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore the Earth's ecosystem; because they contributed differently to degradation, their responsibilities are common but differentiated; developed countries acknowledge their responsibility given the pressure their societies place on the environment and the technological and financial resources they command.
UNFCCC (1992): parties should protect the climate system "on the basis of equity" and according to their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities.
Parties agreed that the largest share of historical and current emissions came from developed countries and that per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low.
Result: China, India and other developing countries were exempted from the requirements of the Kyoto Protocol.

3. The Kyoto Protocol.

Point	Detail
What	International agreement setting targets for industrialised countries to cut greenhouse gas emissions
When and where	Agreed in 1997 at Kyoto, Japan
Basis	Principles of the UNFCCC
Gases	Carbon dioxide, methane, hydro-fluoro carbons and others, held partly responsible for global warming

NCERT's margin voice compares the principle to the reservation policy: equal goals, unequal burdens.

4. Common property resources.

Property held in common by a group, whose members have rights and duties over its use, level of use and maintenance.
Many Indian village communities defined these rights and responsibilities through mutual understanding and centuries of practice.
Shrinking because of privatisation, agricultural intensification, population growth and ecosystem degradation, so less is available to the poor.
Sacred groves: uncut forest patches dedicated to deities or spirits, traditionally managed by village communities along the forest belt of South India; a model of community-based management that may preserve biodiversity and cultural diversity. A problem arises when the state holds legal ownership and the community holds operational control.

5. India's stand on environmental issues.

Theme	India's position
Kyoto	Signed and ratified in August 2002; exempt with China because its emissions during the industrial period were not significant
Per capita argument	At the G-8 meeting, June 2005, India said developing countries' per capita emissions are a tiny fraction of the developed world's
Historical responsibility	Major responsibility for curbing emissions lies with developed countries that accumulated emissions over a long period
Development first	UNFCCC: economic and social development are the first and overriding priorities of developing countries
Binding cuts	Wary of binding commitments on Brazil, China and India; India's per capita emissions were expected to rise from 0.9 tonnes (2000) to 1.6 tonnes (2030), still under half the world average of 3.8 tonnes (2000)
Money and technology	India's 1997 review of Rio found no meaningful progress on new financial resources and clean technology for developing countries
Regional voice	SAARC countries should adopt a common position

Critics' point: sooner or later India and China will be among the leading contributors of greenhouse gases. NCERT's cartoon voice asks: "First they destroyed the earth, now it is our turn?" Your answer should show India is acting too.

6. What India is doing.

National Auto-fuel Policy: cleaner fuels for vehicles.
Energy Conservation Act, 2001: energy efficiency.
Electricity Act, 2003: encourages renewable energy.
Importing natural gas and adopting clean coal technologies.
Proposed National Mission on Biodiesel: about 11 million hectares by 2011-12.
Ratified the Paris Climate Agreement on 2 October 2016; one of the world's largest renewable energy programmes.

Key quotations

Short lines worth knowing by heart: who says them, when, and why they matter.

states have common but differentiated responsibilities
Rio Declaration, 1992, quoted in NCERT Chapter 6: The clause accepting the South's argument.
The legal source of the principle.
on the basis of equity
UNFCCC, 1992, quoted in NCERT Chapter 6: How parties should protect the climate system.
Shows CBDR was written into the climate convention.
economic and social development are the first and overriding priorities
UNFCCC, cited in NCERT on India's stand: The basis of India's negotiating position.
Explains why India resists binding cuts.

Common but Differentiated Responsibilities: key facts

CBDR in one line: Common all states protect the Earth
Differentiated developed states bear more, because of historical emissions and greater resources
Accepted Rio Declaration 1992; UNFCCC 1992; Basis for exempting China and India from Kyoto.
Kyoto Protocol: 1997, Kyoto, Japan
Targets for industrialised countries
Gases: CO2, methane, HFCs
India signed and ratified: August 2002; Built on UNFCCC principles.
India's arguments: Per capita emissions tiny (G-8, June 2005)
Historical responsibility
Development first
Against binding cuts
0.9 t (2000) to 1.6 t (2030) vs world 3.8 t (2000)
Finance and technology transfer
SAARC common position; Use four to six for a 6-mark answer.
India's steps: Auto-fuel Policy
Energy Conservation Act 2001
Electricity Act 2003
Natural gas, clean coal
Biodiesel mission (11 m ha by 2011-12)
Paris Agreement ratified 2 October 2016
Large renewable energy programme; Answers the 'what has India done' question.

Common	all states protect the Earth
Differentiated	developed states bear more, because of historical emissions and greater resources
Accepted	Rio Declaration 1992; UNFCCC 1992

How to answer Common but Differentiated Responsibilities questions

Questions ask you to explain CBDR, India's stand, or India's steps, or to judge whether CBDR is fair. Strong answers define the principle, give its source, show the North-South logic, and support India's position with figures.

1Define CBDR and name its source: Rio Declaration 1992, repeated in UNFCCC.
2Explain both halves: common duty, differentiated burden.
3Give the reasons: historical emissions, low per capita emissions, resources of the North.
4Link to Kyoto: targets for industrialised countries; India and China exempted.
5For India's stand, use per capita figures and historical responsibility, then list domestic steps to show India is not passive.
6In evaluation, add the critics' view that India and China will become leading emitters.

Common but Differentiated Responsibilities in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Per capita versus total emissions

Suppose a household of 12 people uses 600 units of electricity a month, while a household of 2 uses 300 units. The large household is told it must cut more because its total bill is bigger.

Which argument does India make in climate negotiations that this illustrates?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Per person, the large household uses 50 units and the small one 150.
Judging only by totals hides how much each person uses.
India argues that per capita emissions of developing countries are a tiny fraction of those in the developed world.

Answer: It illustrates India's per capita argument, made at the G-8 meeting in June 2005: a large country's total may be high, but each citizen emits far less than people in developed countries.

Memory hook: Divide by people before you blame.

Common property resources

Imagine a village pond where every family may fish but must also help desilt it each summer. A builder buys the land beside it and fences part of the pond.

What does this show about common property resources?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

The pond is common property with rights (fishing) and duties (desilting).
Fencing by a private owner is privatisation shrinking the commons.
The poorest families, who depend on it most, lose access.

Answer: Common property depends on shared rights and duties and dwindles under privatisation and pressure.

Memory hook: Shared pond, shared work.

Tricks to remember Common but Differentiated Responsibilities

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

Rio said it, UNFCCC wrote it, Kyoto applied it
CBDR moves from principle (Rio Declaration) to convention (UNFCCC) to targets for rich countries only (Kyoto).
Use it when: Tracing the principle.
02-05-16
Kyoto ratified 2002, G-8 per capita argument 2005, Paris ratified 2016.
Use it when: India's stand dates.
0.9 to 1.6, under 3.8
India's per capita emissions: 0.9 t in 2000 rising to 1.6 t by 2030, still below half of the world's 3.8 t.
Use it when: Figures for India's argument.

Common but Differentiated Responsibilities: solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Kyoto venue · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

The Kyoto Protocol was agreed in 1997 in:
(a) Brazil
(b) Japan
(c) Canada
(d) France

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

NCERT: agreed in Kyoto, Japan, based on UNFCCC principles (1 mark).

Answer: (b) Japan

Example 2: Common property · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

What are common property resources? Give one Indian example. (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Definition with rights and duties (1 mark).
Example: sacred groves (1 mark).

Answer: Common property resources belong to a group whose members share both rights and duties regarding the nature and level of use and the upkeep of the resource. Example: sacred groves in South India, patches of forest traditionally managed by village communities.

Example 3: Assertion and reason: the critics of Kyoto · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

Assertion (A): Critics of the Kyoto Protocol argue that the exemption of India and China cannot be justified indefinitely.
Reason (R): Sooner or later India and China, along with other developing countries, will be among the leading contributors to greenhouse gas emissions.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

NCERT reports the critics' point that developing countries will become leading emitters, which is why they question the exemption (1 mark).

Answer: (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

Example 4: India's 1997 review · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level

What did India's 1997 review of the Earth Summit agreements conclude, and what does India therefore expect from developed countries? (4 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Year and purpose of the review (1 mark).
Conclusion: no meaningful progress on finance and technology transfer (1 mark).
India's demand: immediate measures by developed countries (1 mark).
Link to UNFCCC commitments and CBDR (1 mark).

Answer: In 1997 India reviewed how the agreements made at the Earth Summit in Rio had been implemented. A key conclusion was that there had been no meaningful progress in transferring new and additional financial resources and environmentally sound technology, on concessional terms, to developing nations. India therefore holds that developed countries must take immediate measures to provide financial resources and clean technologies so that developing countries can meet their existing commitments under the UNFCCC. This follows from common but differentiated responsibilities: the countries that command the technological and financial resources should carry more of the burden.

Example 5: Source-based: a negotiator's note · 4 marks · Source-basedHarder board level

Read the passage (written for this page) and choose the most appropriate answer for each question.

A delegate from a developing country told a climate meeting: 'Our people emit a small fraction of what yours do. The carbon already in the sky came mostly from your factories. We will act, but you must cut first and share the clean technology and money you have.'

(i) The delegate is relying on the principle of:
(A) polluter pays only (B) common but differentiated responsibilities (C) equal cuts for all (D) national sovereignty over the global commons
(ii) India made the argument in the first sentence at which meeting?
(A) The Earth Summit, June 1992 (B) The G-8 meeting, June 2005 (C) The Kyoto conference, 1997 (D) The SAARC summit
(iii) Which agreement set emission-reduction targets only for industrialised countries?
(A) The Kyoto Protocol (B) The Montreal Protocol (C) The Antarctic Treaty (D) The Brundtland Report
(iv) The demand to 'share the clean technology and money' reflects India's finding that since Rio there had been:
(A) too much aid to developing countries (B) no meaningful progress in transferring financial resources and environmentally sound technology (C) full compliance by the North (D) no need for technology transfer

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

(i) (B): CBDR (1 mark).
(ii) (B): the G-8 meeting in June 2005 (1 mark).
(iii) (A): Kyoto targets industrialised countries (1 mark).
(iv) (B): India's 1997 review (1 mark).

Answer: (i) (B) common but differentiated responsibilities; (ii) (B) the G-8 meeting, June 2005; (iii) (A) the Kyoto Protocol; (iv) (B) no meaningful progress in transferring financial resources and environmentally sound technology.

Example 6: Long answer: is CBDR fair? · 6 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

"Common but differentiated responsibilities is a just principle, but it cannot exempt developing countries for ever." Examine this statement with reference to India's stand. (6 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Define CBDR and its source (1 mark).
Why it is just: history, per capita, resources (2 marks).
India's stand and steps (1 mark).
Limits: critics, rising emissions (1 mark).
Judgement (1 mark).

Answer: The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, accepted in the Rio Declaration of 1992 and written into the UNFCCC, says all states must protect the environment, but developed countries carry a heavier burden.

It is just for three reasons. The largest share of historical and current emissions came from developed countries; per capita emissions in developing countries remain low; and developed countries command the technology and financial resources needed for change. On this basis China, India and other developing countries were exempted from the Kyoto Protocol of 1997. India argues that the main responsibility lies with those who accumulated emissions over a long period, that its per capita emissions were expected to stay under half the world average even by 2030, and that development is the first priority of poorer countries.

Yet critics point out that India and China will sooner or later be among the leading contributors of greenhouse gases, and the climate does not distinguish between old and new emissions. India's own conduct shows it accepts some duty: it ratified Kyoto in 2002 and the Paris Agreement in 2016, and has passed the Energy Conservation Act 2001 and Electricity Act 2003.

So the statement is broadly valid. CBDR rightly differentiates the burden, but 'common' also means every state must act; as developing countries' emissions grow, their share of responsibility will grow, ideally supported by finance and technology from the North.

Where students lose marks in Common but Differentiated Responsibilities

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

Mistake: Half a definition
Explaining only the 'differentiated' part.
Wrong working
CBDR means developing countries need not do anything.
Right working
All states share the duty (common); developed states bear more (differentiated).
Do this: Explain both words.
Usually costs: 1-2 marks.
Mistake: Wrong Kyoto facts
Mixing Kyoto with Rio or Paris.
Wrong working
Kyoto Protocol was signed at the Earth Summit and set targets for all countries.
Right working
1997, Kyoto, Japan; targets for industrialised countries only; India ratified August 2002.
Do this: Kyoto = rich-country targets.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: India's stand without evidence
Writing opinions without figures.
Wrong working
India says the West polluted, so the West should pay.
Right working
Per capita argument at G-8 2005; 0.9 to 1.6 tonnes vs world 3.8; historical responsibility in UNFCCC.
Do this: Add at least one figure or event.
Usually costs: 1-2 marks.
Mistake: Ignoring India's own steps
Presenting India as only making demands.
Wrong working
India refuses to act until the North acts.
Right working
Auto-fuel Policy, Energy Conservation Act 2001, Electricity Act 2003, Paris 2016, renewable energy.
Do this: Balance demands with actions.
Usually costs: Quality marks.

Exam tips

Asked in: 2026 board paper 59/5/1 Q28(a) (6 marks, explain common but differentiated responsibilities) and Q28(b) (6 marks, steps taken by India); 2024 board paper 59/3/1 Q27 (6 marks, CBDR, or three Indian environmental programmes); 2024 board paper 59/2/1 Q24 (4 marks, passage on India's view of emission responsibility and Kyoto); 2026 board paper 59/4/1 Q5 (1 mark, assertion-reason on India and Kyoto); 2026 board paper 59/3/1 Q2 (1 mark, objective of the Kyoto Protocol). Answers here are our own.
Quote the Rio Declaration clause in a 6-mark answer.
Keep India's steps in date order: 2001, 2002, 2003, 2016.
Show both sides: India's arguments and the critics' warning.
Common property resources are a separate idea from global commons; do not mix them.

Practice questions on Common but Differentiated Responsibilities

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
Which of the following gases does NCERT name as at least partly responsible for global warming?
(a) Carbon dioxide, methane and hydrofluorocarbons
(b) Oxygen, nitrogen and argon
(c) Helium, neon and hydrogen
(d) Ozone, oxygen and nitrogen
Hint
Kyoto targets these.
Answer
(a) Carbon dioxide, methane and hydrofluorocarbons.
Q2 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level
Name two Indian laws mentioned by NCERT that support energy efficiency or renewable energy. (2 marks)
Hint
2001 and 2003.
Answer
The Energy Conservation Act, 2001 (energy efficiency) and the Electricity Act, 2003 (encourages renewable energy).
Q3 · 2 marks · Very short answerHarder board level
Why are common property resources shrinking? Give two reasons. (2 marks)
Hint
Four factors in NCERT.
Answer
Any two: privatisation, agricultural intensification, population growth and ecosystem degradation. Together they reduce the size, quality and availability of common property to the poor.
Q4 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): India supports binding emission-reduction commitments on rapidly industrialising countries such as Brazil, China and India.
Reason (R): India's per capita carbon emissions are expected to remain below the world average for decades.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
Hint
India is wary of such commitments.
Answer
(d) A is false but R is true: India opposes binding commitments, partly because its per capita emissions remain low.
Q5 · 4 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Explain India's stand on environmental issues in global negotiations. (4 marks)
Hint
Per capita, history, development, finance.
Answer
India relies on the principle of historical responsibility in the UNFCCC: developed countries caused most historical and current emissions, so they must take the main responsibility for cutting them. At the G-8 meeting in June 2005 it pointed out that developing countries' per capita emissions are a tiny fraction of developed countries'. It is wary of binding commitments on rapidly industrialising countries, since its per capita emissions were expected to rise only from 0.9 to 1.6 tonnes between 2000 and 2030, under half the world average of 3.8 tonnes. It insists that development is the first priority of developing countries, demands financial resources and clean technology from the North, and wants SAARC countries to take a common position.
Q6 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
An NCERT cartoon asks: 'First they destroyed the earth, now it is our turn to do the same! Is that our stand?' Respond to this question using India's arguments and its own actions. (4 marks)
Hint
CBDR is not a licence to pollute; India's steps.
Answer
No. India's stand is not a demand to pollute, but a demand for a fair division of the burden. Developed countries accumulated emissions over a long period, and India's per capita emissions were expected to rise only from 0.9 tonnes in 2000 to 1.6 tonnes in 2030, under half the world average of 3.8 tonnes in 2000; development remains its first priority, as the UNFCCC itself accepts. At the same time India is acting: the National Auto-fuel Policy mandates cleaner fuels, the Energy Conservation Act 2001 promotes efficiency, the Electricity Act 2003 encourages renewable energy, and India ratified the Paris Agreement in 2016 and runs one of the world's largest renewable energy programmes. So India's position is 'act, but differently', not 'our turn to destroy'.
Q7 · 6 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency
"Shared rights must come with shared duties." Examine this statement with reference to NCERT's account of common property resources and sacred groves, and explain why such resources are dwindling. (6 marks)
Hint
Definition; mutual understanding; sacred groves; four pressures; ownership problem.
Answer
Common property is property held in common by a group: each member has both rights and duties regarding the nature and level of use and the maintenance of the resource. The statement captures this exactly: the right to use comes with the duty to care.
NCERT notes that through mutual understanding and centuries of practice, many Indian village communities defined their members' rights and responsibilities. Sacred groves are a good example: patches of forest dedicated to deities or spirits and left uncut, traditionally managed by village communities along the forest belt of South India. Such community management can protect biodiversity as well as cultural diversity.
Yet these resources are dwindling in size, quality and availability to the poor because of privatisation, agricultural intensification, population growth and ecosystem degradation. Sacred groves are also fading as new national forest policies arrive, and a real problem arises when the state holds legal ownership while the community holds operational control; when rights and duties are separated in this way, neither side fully looks after the resource.
So the statement holds. Common property survives where rights and duties stay together in a community, and declines where outside pressures or split ownership break that link.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1.Which 1992 convention asks parties to protect the climate system 'on the basis of equity'?Show answer
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
2.What did India point out at the G-8 meeting in June 2005?Show answer
That the per capita emission rates of developing countries are a tiny fraction of those in the developed world.
3.What is the main problem in managing sacred groves, according to NCERT?Show answer
Legal ownership lies with the state while operational control lies with the community.
4.How much land did India plan to use under the National Mission on Biodiesel, and by when?Show answer
About 11 million hectares, by 2011-12.
5.What was the world average per capita carbon emission in 2000 cited by NCERT?Show answer
3.8 tonnes.
6.Where are sacred groves traditionally managed by village communities?Show answer
Along the forest belt of South India.

Common but Differentiated Responsibilities: frequently asked questions

Why does India want SAARC countries to adopt a common position?

So that the region's voice carries greater weight on major global environmental issues.

What is India's main argument in climate talks?

Developed countries caused most historical emissions and have much higher per capita emissions, so they must take the main responsibility.

What does NCERT's margin compare CBDR to?

The reservation policy in India: everyone shares the goal, but the burden is distributed unequally according to circumstances.

How fast are India's per capita emissions expected to grow?

From 0.9 tonnes in 2000 to 1.6 tonnes in 2030, still less than half the world average of 3.8 tonnes in 2000.