Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas: Early Bhakti in South India (Class 12 History)
Updated 15 October 2026 · Fact-checked
From about the sixth century the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) travelled across Tamil Nadu singing Tamil hymns, welcomed devotees of all castes and women such as Andal and Karaikkal Ammaiyar, and won Chola patronage. In twelfth-century Karnataka, Basavanna's Virashaivas (Lingayats) challenged caste, pollution and rebirth.
Understand Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas
Why this topic matters. Theme 6 opens with south Indian bhakti. Boards ask about the ideas of the Alvars and Nayanars, their women devotees, their attitude to caste, their relations with the state, and the beliefs of the Lingayats, along with source passages by Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Appar and Basavanna. NCERT sections 2.1-2.4 and 3, Sources 1-4.
1. The setting. Devotional worship already had a history of almost a thousand years. It ranged from routine temple worship to ecstatic adoration in which devotees reached a trance-like state, with singing and chanting, especially in the Vaishnava and Shaiva sects. Poet-saints emerged as leaders with communities of devotees around them. Bhakti also accommodated women and the "lower castes", who were considered ineligible for liberation in the orthodox Brahmanical framework.
- Saguna bhakti (with attributes): worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars and forms of the goddess, often imagined in human form.
- Nirguna bhakti (without attributes): worship of an abstract form of god.
- The Alvars and Nayanars belong to the saguna stream.
2. Who they were. Among the earliest bhakti movements, from about the sixth century, were those of the Alvars (literally, those "immersed" in devotion to Vishnu) and the Nayanars (literally, leaders devoted to Shiva). Both moved from place to place, singing Tamil hymns to their gods.
- They identified certain shrines as abodes of their deities; large temples were often built later at these places, which became pilgrimage centres.
- Singing their compositions became part of temple ritual, as did worship of the saints' images.
| Period (NCERT timeline) | Teachers |
|---|---|
| c. 500-800 CE | Appar, Sambandar, Sundaramurti |
| c. 800-900 | Nammalvar, Manikkavachakar, Andal, Tondaradippodi |
| c. 1100-1200 | Basavanna in Karnataka |
3. The great compilations.
- By the tenth century the compositions of the 12 Alvars were compiled as the Nalayira Divyaprabandham ("Four Thousand Sacred Compositions"). It was often called the Tamil Veda, a claim that it was as significant as the four Sanskrit Vedas cherished by Brahmanas.
- The poems of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar form the Tevaram, put together in the tenth century and arranged according to the music of the songs.
4. Attitudes towards caste. Some historians suggest the Alvars and Nayanars began a protest against the caste system and Brahmana dominance, or at least tried to reform it. Supporting evidence: bhaktas came from diverse backgrounds, from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even castes considered "untouchable".
- Tondaradippodi, himself a Brahmana Alvar, told Vishnu that he favours loving "servants" even if born outcastes over chaturvedins (Brahmanas versed in the four Vedas) who do not serve him.
- Appar, a Nayanar, mocked those who quote the law books and asked what use their gotra and kula were; the only refuge was Shiva of Marperu.
- Note the careful wording: NCERT says *some historians suggest* a protest. Present it as an interpretation, supported by evidence.
5. Women devotees. One of the most striking features of these traditions.
- Andal, a woman Alvar, imagined herself as Vishnu's beloved; her love poems to the god are sung even today.
- Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, chose extreme asceticism; her compositions were preserved in the Nayanar tradition. In one poem she describes herself as a pey (demoness) with bulging veins and protruding eyes, wandering in the forest of Alankatu, the home of Shiva, a deliberate contrast to ideals of feminine beauty.
- Both gave up their social duties, yet neither entered another order or became a nun. Their existence and compositions challenged patriarchal norms.
6. Relations with the state.
- States such as the Pallavas and Pandyas (c. sixth to ninth centuries) ruled the Tamil region. Buddhism and Jainism had long been present, supported by merchant and artisan communities, with occasional royal patronage.
- A major theme of Tamil bhakti hymns is opposition to Buddhism and Jainism, sharpest among the Nayanars. Historians explain this as competition for royal patronage.
- The Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions with land grants and temples for Vishnu and Shiva, including the great Shiva temples at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram; spectacular bronze images of Shiva were made in this period.
- Both traditions were revered by Vellala peasants, so rulers tried to win their support too. Chola kings claimed divine support through splendid temples recreating the saints' visions, introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in temples and organised them into the Tevaram.
- An inscription from around 945 suggests Parantaka I consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar in a Shiva temple; they were carried in processions at the saints' festivals.
7. The Virashaivas of Karnataka. In the twelfth century a new movement was led by Basavanna (1106-68), a Brahmana and a minister in the court of a Kalachuri ruler.
- Followers: Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga). They worship Shiva as a linga; men usually wear a small linga in a silver case on a loop over the left shoulder; the jangama (wandering monks) are revered.
- Belief: at death the devotee is united with Shiva and does not return to this world, so they do not cremate; they ceremonially bury their dead.
- Social ideas: they challenged caste and the "pollution" attributed to some groups by Brahmanas, and questioned rebirth, which won followers among the marginalised; they encouraged practices the Dharmashastras disapproved, such as post-puberty marriage and widow remarriage.
- Source: vachanas (sayings) composed in Kannada by women and men. In one, Basavanna notes that people pour milk on a stone serpent but shout to kill a real one, and feed an image that cannot eat while turning away a hungry servant of god.
8. What came next. Many ideas of the Tamil bhaktas (especially Vaishnavas) were absorbed into the Sanskritic tradition, culminating in the Bhagavata Purana; and bhakti traditions developed in Maharashtra in the thirteenth century.
Key quotations
Short lines worth knowing by heart: who says them, when, and why they matter.
though they may be born outcastes
Tondaradippodi, a Brahmana Alvar (Source 1, NCERT): Telling Vishnu that he prefers loving devotees of low birth to unloving chaturvedins.
Devotion, not birth, wins divine favour: evidence for the bhaktas' critique of caste.
O rogues who quote the law books
Appar, a Nayanar (Source 2, NCERT): Addressing those who rely on the Shastras.
Rejects gotra and kula as routes to Shiva.
Of what use are your gotra and kula?
Appar (Source 2, NCERT): The same verse, urging surrender to Shiva of Marperu.
Lineage and caste count for nothing before the god.
When they see a serpent carved in stone they pour milk on it.
Basavanna, vachana (Source 4, NCERT): Contrasting reverence for images with cruelty to living beings.
The Virashaiva critique of empty ritual.
Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas: key facts
- Two Tamil streams
Alvars devotees of Vishnu Nayanars devotees of Shiva Began c. sixth century Hymns in Tamil - Both saguna bhakti; both revered by Vellala peasants.
- Two anthologies (both tenth century)
Nalayira Divyaprabandham 12 Alvars, 'Four Thousand Sacred Compositions', called the Tamil Veda Tevaram Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, classified by the music of the songs Compiled by the tenth century - Chola kings organised the Tevaram.
- Women devotees
Andal woman Alvar, saw herself as Vishnu's beloved Karaikkal Ammaiyar devotee of Shiva (Nayanar tradition), extreme asceticism, pey image Both renounced social duties without becoming nuns - Their existence and compositions challenged patriarchal norms.
- State and bhakti
c. 6th-9th centuries Pallavas and Pandyas rule the Tamil region 9th-13th centuries Cholas give land grants, temples at Chidambaram, Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram c. 945 Parantaka I consecrates images of Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar - Hostility to Buddhism and Jainism: competition for patronage.
- Virashaivas
Leader Basavanna (1106-68), a Brahmana Post minister of a Kalachuri ruler Followers Virashaivas or Lingayats Sources vachanas in Kannada - Twelfth century, Karnataka.
- Lingayat beliefs
- Linga worn in a silver case
- Jangama (wandering monks) revered
- Burial, not cremation
- Against caste and pollution
- Rebirth questioned
- Post-puberty marriage and widow remarriage
- Practices disapproved in the Dharmashastras.
How to answer Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas questions
Expect 1-mark items (who was Andal, which text is the Tamil Veda, Lingayat practices), 3-mark questions (women devotees, attitude to caste, Alvars' legacy), 4-mark source questions (Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Appar, Basavanna) and 8-mark answers on their ideas and relations with the state.
- 1Fix the tradition first: Alvar (Vishnu), Nayanar (Shiva) or Virashaiva (Shiva as linga, Karnataka).
- 2Name at least two saints or texts with their period: Appar, Andal, Tondaradippodi; Nalayira Divyaprabandham, Tevaram; Basavanna (1106-68).
- 3For ideas, cover devotion to a chosen deity, Tamil hymns, shrines and pilgrimage, openness to all castes and to women.
- 4For caste, quote evidence (Tondaradippodi, Appar) and say 'some historians suggest' a protest, as NCERT does.
- 5For the state, link the Pallavas, Pandyas and Cholas, competition with Buddhism and Jainism, temples, bronzes, the Tevaram and Parantaka I's images.
- 6For Lingayats, list beliefs and practices and say why they drew the marginalised.
Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas in real life
The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.
Rulers adopting popular devotion
Suppose a folk singer's devotional songs become so loved in a district that the district collector puts them into the official festival programme and installs her statue at the festival ground.
What does the official gain, and which Chola practice does this resemble?
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- The singer is already loved by ordinary people, so honouring her brings the official goodwill.
- Chola kings introduced Tamil Shaiva hymns into temple worship and organised them into the Tevaram.
- Parantaka I consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar, carried in festival processions.
Answer: Legitimacy and popular support; the Cholas did the same with the Nayanars, whom the Vellala peasants revered.
Memory hook: Honour the people's saint, win the people.
Devotion over lineage
Imagine a music academy that admits students by an open audition instead of asking which family or surname they come from.
Which bhakti poets argued along these lines about access to god?
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- The audition values what a person does, not who their ancestors were.
- Appar asked what use gotra and kula were; Tondaradippodi said Vishnu preferred loving devotees born outcastes to unloving chaturvedins.
- Basavanna's Lingayats rejected caste and pollution altogether.
Answer: Appar, Tondaradippodi and the Virashaivas: devotion mattered more than birth.
Memory hook: Audition, not ancestry.
Tricks to remember Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas
Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.
A-V, N-S
Alvar starts with A like Andal, who loved Vishnu; Nayanar sounds like Nataraja, a form of Shiva.
Use it when: Never mix up which saints worshipped which god.
Tevaram = ASS + music
Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, sorted by music.
Use it when: The Shaiva anthology and how it was classified.
LINGA for Lingayats
L = linga worn in a silver case; I = in death united with Shiva (no rebirth); N = no cremation, burial instead; G = against grading by caste and pollution; A = allowed widow remarriage and post-puberty marriage.
Use it when: Five Lingayat beliefs and practices for a 3-mark answer.
Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas: solved examples
Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.
Example 1: Which anthology was ordered by music? · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
Which anthology of Tamil Shaiva hymns was arranged according to the music of its songs?
(a) Nalayira Divyaprabandham
(b) Tevaram
(c) Kirtana-ghosha
(d) Bhagavata Purana
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- The Tevaram gathers the poems of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar and was classified by the music of the songs (1 mark).
Answer: (b) Tevaram
Example 2: Lingayats and the Dharmashastras · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level
Give three ways in which Lingayat beliefs or practices went against what the Dharmashastras prescribed. (3 marks)
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- Burial instead of cremation, because the devotee is united with Shiva at death and does not return (1 mark).
- Rejection of caste and of the 'pollution' Brahmanas attributed to some groups; questioning of rebirth (1 mark).
- Encouragement of post-puberty marriage and remarriage of widows (1 mark).
Answer: First, the Dharmashastras prescribe funerary rites such as cremation, but Lingayats ceremonially bury their dead, since they believe the devotee is united with Shiva at death and will not return to this world. Second, they challenged the idea of caste and the 'pollution' that Brahmanas attributed to certain groups, and questioned the theory of rebirth. Third, they encouraged post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows, both disapproved in the Dharmashastras.
Example 3: Assertion and reason: rival faiths · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): Tamil bhakti hymns were generally friendly towards Buddhism and Jainism.
Reason (R): In the Tamil region Buddhism and Jainism drew support from merchant and artisan communities.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- Opposition to Buddhism and Jainism is a major theme of the hymns, especially of the Nayanars, so A is false; R is true (1 mark).
Answer: (d) A is false but R is true.
Example 4: Did the Tamil bhaktas reject caste? · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Some historians see the Alvars and Nayanars as critics of caste. What evidence supports this view, and why should it be stated with caution? (3 marks)
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- Bhaktas came from all backgrounds, from Brahmanas to artisans, cultivators and 'untouchable' castes (1 mark).
- Tondaradippodi preferred loving devotees born outcastes to chaturvedins; Appar scorned gotra and kula; their hymns were called the Tamil Veda, equal to the Sanskrit Vedas (1 mark).
- Caution: NCERT says only that some historians suggest a protest or an attempt to reform; Brahmanas remained important intermediaries in several forms of bhakti, and the hymns became part of temple ritual (1 mark).
Answer: The view rests on three kinds of evidence. The bhaktas themselves came from diverse groups, from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even castes considered 'untouchable'. Their verses question birth-based status: Tondaradippodi, though a Brahmana, told Vishnu that he favoured loving 'servants' born outcastes over chaturvedins who did not serve him, and Appar asked those who quoted the law books what use their gotra and kula were. Their anthology, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, was even called the Tamil Veda, as important as the Sanskrit Vedas. Yet the claim needs caution: historians only suggest that they protested against caste or tried to reform it, Brahmanas remained important intermediaries in several forms of bhakti, and the hymns were soon absorbed into temple ritual.
Example 5: Source-based: a vachana · 4 marks · Source-basedHarder board level
Read the source (summarised for this page from a vachana in NCERT) and answer.
People pour milk over a snake carved in stone, yet cry 'kill it' when a live snake appears. They push away a hungry devotee who could actually eat, yet place plates of food before an image of the god that cannot eat.
(i) Who composed this saying, and in which language were such sayings composed? (1)
(ii) Identify the two contrasts the composer draws. (1)
(iii) What does the saying reveal about the Virashaiva attitude to ritual and to human beings? (2)
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- (i) Basavanna; vachanas were composed in Kannada (1 mark).
- (ii) Stone snake worshipped versus real snake attacked; image fed versus hungry devotee turned away (1 mark).
- (iii) Ritual offerings to images are hollow if living beings are treated cruelly; true devotion means care for people, which matches the Lingayats' rejection of caste and pollution (2 marks).
Answer: (i) Basavanna, the twelfth-century leader of the Virashaivas; vachanas (sayings) were composed in Kannada. (ii) Worship of a carved serpent against hostility to a living serpent; food offered to an image that cannot eat against refusal of food to a hungry servant of god. (iii) Basavanna mocks ritual that honours images while ignoring living beings. He uses everyday scenes to show the listener the contradiction, so that devotion is judged by how people treat others. This fits the Lingayat challenge to caste, pollution and Brahmanical ritual.
Example 6: Long answer: from the road to the royal temple · 8 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency
"Devotion that began on the road ended up in royal temples." Trace how the Tamil bhakti traditions moved from wandering poet-saints to state-supported worship, and assess what the Chola rulers and the bhaktas each gained. (8 marks)
Try it first, then show the solutionSolution
- Wandering saints from c. sixth century; Tamil hymns to Vishnu and Shiva (1 mark).
- Shrines identified as abodes of gods; temples and pilgrimage centres; singing and saints' images in ritual (1 mark).
- Tenth-century anthologies: Nalayira Divyaprabandham, Tevaram (1 mark).
- Context: Pallavas, Pandyas; Buddhism and Jainism; hostility explained by competition for patronage (1 mark).
- Cholas: land grants, temples at Chidambaram, Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram; bronzes (1 mark).
- Tevaram singing in temples; Parantaka I's images c. 945 in processions (1 mark).
- Gains for rulers: divine support, status, support of Vellala peasants (1 mark).
- Gains for bhaktas: patronage, permanence, wider reach; cost: absorption into temple ritual; balanced conclusion (1 mark).
Answer: From about the sixth century the Alvars, immersed in devotion to Vishnu, and the Nayanars, devotees of Shiva, travelled from place to place singing Tamil hymns. As they went, they identified certain shrines as the abodes of their gods. Large temples were later built at many of these places, which became pilgrimage centres, and the singing of the saints' songs, along with worship of their images, became part of temple ritual. By the tenth century the hymns of the 12 Alvars had been compiled as the Nalayira Divyaprabandham and those of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar as the Tevaram.
The political setting explains the move to royal temples. Under the Pallavas and Pandyas (c. sixth to ninth centuries), Buddhism and Jainism, backed by merchants and artisans, also sought royal favour, and the bhakti hymns, especially those of the Nayanars, opposed them; historians link this hostility to competition for patronage. The Cholas (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions with land grants and temples, including the great Shiva temples at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, and some of the finest bronzes of Shiva were made in this period. Chola kings introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in temples and had them organised into the Tevaram; an inscription of around 945 suggests that Parantaka I consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar, carried in procession at their festivals.
Both sides gained. The rulers claimed divine support and proclaimed their power and status through splendid temples that recreated the visions of popular saints, and won the goodwill of the Vellala peasants who revered the bhaktas. The bhakti traditions gained patronage, permanent shrines, compiled texts and a wide audience. The price was that songs once sung on the road were now organised within royal temple worship.
Thus devotion that began with wandering singers became, by Chola times, part of state-sponsored religion, a partnership that served both king and saint.
Where students lose marks in Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas
The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.
Mistake: Swapping the gods of the Alvars and Nayanars
Both are Tamil and similar-sounding.
Wrong working
The Nayanars were devotees of Vishnu.
Right working
Alvars: Vishnu. Nayanars: Shiva.
Do this: A-V, N-S (Andal-Vishnu, Nataraja-Shiva).
Usually costs: 1 mark, and the whole answer if built on it.
Mistake: Making Andal a Nayanar or Karaikkal Ammaiyar an Alvar
Two women, two traditions.
Wrong working
Andal, a woman Nayanar, worshipped Shiva.
Right working
Andal was a woman Alvar devoted to Vishnu; Karaikkal Ammaiyar was a devotee of Shiva preserved in the Nayanar tradition.
Do this: Andal-Alvar: both begin with A.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Stating as fact that the bhaktas abolished caste
Overreading the sources.
Wrong working
The Alvars and Nayanars ended the caste system.
Right working
Some historians suggest they protested against caste or tried to reform it; bhaktas came from all castes.
Do this: Use 'some historians suggest' and give evidence.
Usually costs: 1-2 marks in analytical answers.
Mistake: Writing that Lingayats cremate the dead
Assuming the common practice.
Wrong working
Lingayats cremate their dead to reach Shiva.
Right working
They bury their dead, believing the devotee is united with Shiva and does not return.
Do this: LINGA: N = no cremation.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Exam tips
- Asked in: 2023 board paper 61/1/1 Q24 (3 marks, women devotees of the Alvar and Nayanar traditions); 2024 board paper 61/3/1 Q29(a) (8 marks, ideas of the Alvars and Nayanars and their relations with the state); 2026 board paper 61/3/1 Q25(b) (3 marks, the Alvars' cultural legacy); 2026 board paper 61/5/1 Q32 and sample paper 2023-24 Q32 (4-mark source, Karaikkal Ammaiyar's poem); 1-mark items such as 2023 61/3/1 Q6, 2026 61/5/1 Q9 (Basavanna) and sample paper 2025-26 Q10 (Lingayat funerary rites). Answers here are our own.
- Always pair a saint with a tradition and a god: Andal-Alvar-Vishnu, Karaikkal Ammaiyar-Nayanar-Shiva, Basavanna-Virashaiva-Shiva.
- For an 8-mark answer on the state, the Cholas carry the marks: temples, bronzes, the Tevaram and Parantaka I's images.
- In source questions on Karaikkal Ammaiyar, mention the contrast with traditional ideals of feminine beauty.
Practice questions on Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas
Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.
Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
Which of these devotees saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu?
(a) Karaikkal Ammaiyar
(b) Andal
(c) Mirabai
(d) Lal DedHint
A woman Alvar.
Answer
(b) Andal.
Q2 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level
How did saguna bhakti differ from nirguna bhakti? Give an example of each. (2 marks)
Hint
With or without attributes.
Answer
Saguna bhakti worships a specific deity with attributes, often in human form, for example the Alvars' devotion to Vishnu. Nirguna bhakti worships an abstract, formless god, for example Baba Guru Nanak's devotion to a God without gender or form.
Q3 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
In what ways did Andal and Karaikkal Ammaiyar step outside the roles expected of women in their society? Why do historians see this as significant? (3 marks)
Hint
Love for the god, asceticism, no nunnery.
Answer
Andal expressed her love for Vishnu as his beloved instead of for a husband, and her verses are still sung. Karaikkal Ammaiyar followed extreme asceticism to reach Shiva and even pictured herself as a fearsome demoness, rejecting ideals of feminine beauty. Both renounced their social obligations without joining an alternative order or becoming nuns. Historians see their very existence and compositions as a challenge to patriarchal norms.
Q4 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Tondaradippodi was a Brahmana Alvar; Appar was a Nayanar. Compare how each of them argued that birth did not decide a person's worth before god. (3 marks)
Hint
One praises outcaste devotees; the other mocks lineage.
Answer
Tondaradippodi argued positively: Vishnu prefers loving 'servants' even if born outcastes to chaturvedins, Brahmanas versed in the four Vedas, who do not serve him. As a Brahmana, he criticised his own group's claim to status. Appar argued by attack: he called those who quote the law books rogues and asked what use their gotra and kula were, urging them to take refuge in Shiva of Marperu. Both made devotion, not lineage, the test.
Q5 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): The Lingayats won followers among those who were marginalised in the Brahmanical social order.
Reason (R): The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and of 'pollution', and questioned the theory of rebirth.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.Hint
NCERT links the two directly.
Answer
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
Q6 · 3 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
Suppose the only evidence of the Nayanars to survive were the Chola bronze images of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar and the inscription of about 945. What could a historian infer, and what would remain unknown? (3 marks)
Hint
Royal patronage versus the saints' own ideas.
Answer
She could infer that these saints were revered enough for a Chola king, Parantaka I, to consecrate their metal images in a Shiva temple and have them carried in festival processions, showing royal patronage and popular devotion. She would not know what the saints taught, their Tamil hymns, their attitude to caste or to Buddhism and Jainism, or the role of women devotees, all of which come from their compositions and the Tevaram.
Q7 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
Why were Tamil bhakti hymns, especially those of the Nayanars, hostile to Buddhism and Jainism? Evaluate the explanation historians offer. (4 marks)
Hint
Patronage, merchants, Cholas.
Answer
Historians suggest the hostility arose from competition for royal patronage. Buddhism and Jainism had been present for centuries, backed by merchant and artisan communities and sometimes by rulers. The explanation fits what followed: the Chola rulers backed Brahmanical and bhakti traditions with land grants, temples and bronzes, so winning royal favour clearly mattered. It is still an inference: the hymns themselves show the opposition, but the motive is reconstructed by historians, and religious conviction may also have played a part.
Test your recall
Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.
1.What does 'Alvar' literally mean?Show answer
Those 'immersed' in devotion to Vishnu.
2.What is the Nalayira Divyaprabandham?Show answer
The tenth-century anthology of the 12 Alvars' compositions, 'Four Thousand Sacred Compositions', called the Tamil Veda.
3.Whose poems form the Tevaram?Show answer
Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar.
4.Which Chola ruler consecrated metal images of the Nayanars around 945?Show answer
Parantaka I.
5.Whom did Basavanna serve as minister?Show answer
A Kalachuri ruler.
6.In which language are the vachanas composed?Show answer
Kannada.
Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas: frequently asked questions
Who were the Alvars and Nayanars?
Tamil poet-saints of early bhakti, from about the sixth century: the Alvars were devotees of Vishnu and the Nayanars of Shiva. They travelled singing Tamil hymns and drew devotees from all castes.
Why was the Nalayira Divyaprabandham called the Tamil Veda?
Because its admirers claimed that this anthology of the Alvars' compositions was as significant as the four Sanskrit Vedas cherished by the Brahmanas.
Who were the Lingayats?
Followers of Basavanna in twelfth-century Karnataka, also called Virashaivas. They worship Shiva as a linga, bury their dead, challenge caste and pollution, question rebirth and allow widow remarriage.
Why did Chola kings support the Nayanars?
To claim divine support, display their power through splendid temples and win the support of the Vellala peasants who revered the saints; they also had the Tamil Shaiva hymns sung in temples and compiled into the Tevaram.