CBSE Class 11 · Secularism

Secularism: Domination, the Secular State and the Western Model (Class 11 Political Science, Political Theory, Chapter 8)

Updated 17 October 2026 · Fact-checked

Secularism is a normative doctrine opposing inter-religious and intra-religious domination; it is not anti-religious. A secular state is neither theocratic nor has an established religion, and is committed to ends such as peace, religious freedom and equality. The western (American) model understands separation as mutual exclusion; Ataturk's Turkey shows an interventionist alternative.

Notice that the secular state acts against domination between and within religions, is neither theocratic nor tied to one religion, and aims for peace, freedom,

Illustration drawn for QuestionBuddy.

Understand What Is Secularism? Inter- and Intra-Religious Domination, the Secular State and the Western Model

Why this topic matters. The two forms of domination, conditions of a secular state and the western model's features are repeated 3-5 mark questions; this topic is the base for the Indian model.

1. Inter-religious domination. Members of one community are targeted because of their religious identity and denied basic freedoms. The chapter notes that Arab minorities in Israel are excluded from benefits available to Jewish citizens, subtle discrimination persists against non-Christians in parts of Europe and the condition of religious minorities in Pakistan and Bangladesh causes concern. In India, the Constitution declares every citizen's right to live with freedom and dignity anywhere, yet three examples are cited: the killing of more than 2,700 Sikhs in 1984, the departure of thousands of Kashmiri Pandits from the Kashmir valley and the killing of more than 1,000 people in the post-Godhra riots in Gujarat in 2002. Secularism is first and foremost a doctrine opposing all forms of inter-religious domination.

2. Intra-religious domination. The view that religion is the 'opium of the masses' and will vanish is an exaggerated view of human potential: disease, accident, separation and loss remain, and religion, art and philosophy respond to them, so secularism is not anti-religious. But religions have deep problems: hardly any treats men and women equally; Dalits have been barred from temples and in some places women cannot enter temples; organised religion is often taken over by its most conservative faction, intolerant of dissent; and sectarian splits lead to violence. Secularism is a normative doctrine seeking a society free of inter- and intra-religious domination, promoting freedom within religions and equality between and within religions.

3. Secular state. Education and goodwill help, but the state's enormous power makes its conduct crucial. Conditions: (i) not theocratic, not run by heads of a religion (the Papal states of medieval Europe, the Taliban-controlled state); (ii) no formal legal alliance with any religion (16th-century England favoured the Anglican Church; Pakistan has Sunni Islam as official religion); (iii) committed to ends at least partly from non-religious sources: peace, religious freedom, freedom from religiously grounded oppression, and inter- and intra-religious equality. Separation of religion and state is necessary but not sufficient.

4. Western (American) model. Separation as mutual exclusion: the state does not intervene in religion and religion does not interfere in the state; no policy may have an exclusively religious rationale; the state cannot aid religious institutions nor hinder them within the law; religion is a private matter; freedom and equality are understood individualistically, with little room for minority rights; no state-supported religious reform. The reason: western societies were largely religiously homogeneous, so they focused on intra-religious domination.

5. Ataturk's Turkey. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, after the First World War, pursued active intervention and suppression of religion: ended the Khalifa institution, banned the fez by the Hat Law, encouraged western dress, adopted the Gregorian calendar and in 1928 a Latin-based alphabet.

What Is Secularism? Inter- and Intra-Religious Domination, the Secular State and the Western Model: key facts

Two dominations: Inter-religious: one community targeted for its religious identity | Intra-religious: within a religion, e.g. women and Dalits; Secularism opposes both.
Secular state conditions: Not theocratic
No established religion
Committed to non-religious ends: peace, freedom, equality; Necessary conditions.
Western model: Mutual exclusion
No aid, no hindrance
Private religion
Individual rights
No state reform; American model.
Ataturk: Khalifa ended
Fez banned (Hat Law)
Gregorian calendar
Latin alphabet 1928; Active suppression.

How to answer What Is Secularism? Inter- and Intra-Religious Domination, the Secular State and the Western Model questions

Definition answers combine the two dominations.

1Define secularism as opposing inter-religious domination.
2Add intra-religious domination with examples.
3State that it is not anti-religious.
4Link to the state's conditions.

What Is Secularism? Inter- and Intra-Religious Domination, the Secular State and the Western Model in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

A community singled out

Suppose members of one community in a town are targeted and forced to leave their homes only because of their religion.

Which kind of domination is this?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

The targeting is because of religious identity.
Inter-religious domination.

Answer: Inter-religious domination.

Memory hook: One community against another.

Barred from the sanctum

Suppose a temple bars some members of the same religion from entering its inner sanctum.

Which kind of domination?

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Discrimination within a religion.
Intra-religious domination.

Answer: Intra-religious domination.

Memory hook: Within the same religion.

Tricks to remember What Is Secularism? Inter- and Intra-Religious Domination, the Secular State and the Western Model

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

Inter between, intra within
Domination between and within religions
Use it when: Two forms.
Not theocratic, not established
Two basic conditions
Use it when: Secular state.
Mutual exclusion
Western model
Use it when: Separation.

What Is Secularism? Inter- and Intra-Religious Domination, the Secular State and the Western Model: solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Inter-religious domination · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

When members of one religious community are targeted because of their religious identity, it is called:
(A) intra-religious domination
(B) inter-religious domination
(C) theocracy
(D) established religion

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Targeting by religious identity is inter-religious domination (1 mark).

Answer: (B)

Example 2: Not anti-religious · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level

Why is secularism not anti-religious? (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Religion, art and philosophy respond to human suffering that remains (1 mark).
Secularism opposes domination, not religion, and accepts that role (1 mark).

Answer: Secularism accepts that religion, like art and philosophy, responds to suffering that cannot be fully removed, such as disease and loss. It opposes domination within and between religions, not religion itself.

Example 3: Conditions of a secular state · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

State three conditions that make a state secular. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Not theocratic (1 mark).
No formal legal alliance with, or established, religion (1 mark).
Committed to ends at least partly from non-religious sources: peace, freedom and equality (1 mark).

Answer: A secular state must not be theocratic, that is run by heads of a religion; it must have no formal legal alliance with any religion (no established religion); and it must be committed to ends at least partly from non-religious sources such as peace, religious freedom and inter- and intra-religious equality.

Example 4: Assertion and reason: western model · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level

Assertion (A): In the western model of secularism the state cannot aid religious institutions.
Reason (R): The model understands separation as mutual exclusion of state and religion.
(A) Both true, R explains A
(B) Both true, R does not explain A
(C) A true, R false
(D) A false, R true

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Mutual exclusion explains the ban on aid (1 mark).

Answer: (A)

Example 5: HOTS: inter and intra domination · 5 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency

Case 1: A priest bars women from entering a shrine open to men. Case 2: A mob attacks members of another community. Case 3: A state declares one religion the official religion and gives its leaders special powers. Classify each form of domination or violation of secular conditions, and explain why separation of state and religion alone may not be enough. (5 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Case 1: intra-religious domination (1 mark).
Case 2: inter-religious domination (1 mark).
Case 3: establishing a religion violates the condition of no formal alliance and moves towards a theocracy (1 mark).
Separation is necessary but not sufficient, since it may take different forms (1 mark).
A secular state must also pursue equality and freedom within and between religions, e.g. by protecting those dominated (1 mark).

Answer: Case 1 is intra-religious domination, since women face unequal treatment within the same religion. Case 2 is inter-religious domination, as one community is targeted for its identity. Case 3 breaks the conditions of a secular state by establishing a religion and giving its leaders powers, moving towards a theocracy. Separation of state and religion is necessary but not sufficient, because a secular state must also pursue freedom and equality within and between religions, and the state may have to act to protect those dominated.

Where students lose marks in What Is Secularism? Inter- and Intra-Religious Domination, the Secular State and the Western Model

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

Mistake: Saying secularism is anti-religion
Common misreading.
Wrong working
Secularism opposes religion.
Right working
It opposes domination, not religion.
Do this: Say "not anti-religious".
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Listing only inter-religious domination
One form.
Wrong working
Secularism opposes only communal violence.
Right working
It also opposes intra-religious domination.
Do this: Give both forms.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Treating separation as sufficient
Over-simple.
Wrong working
Separation of state and religion makes a state secular.
Right working
Necessary but not sufficient.
Do this: Mention non-religious ends.
Usually costs: 1 mark.

Exam tips

Define secularism with both dominations.
List the three conditions of a secular state.
Use neutral language for the incidents cited in the chapter.

Practice questions on What Is Secularism? Inter- and Intra-Religious Domination, the Secular State and the Western Model

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
Which of these is an example of a theocratic state in the chapter?
(A) 16th-century England
(B) the Papal states
(C) Pakistan
(D) the United States
Hint
Run by religious heads.
Answer
(B)
Q2 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level
Give two examples of intra-religious domination from the chapter. (2 marks)
Hint
Women, Dalits.
Answer
Dalits being barred from Hindu temples and women being barred from entering temples in some places; also unequal treatment of women and intolerance of dissent.
Q3 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Describe the features of the western model of secularism. (3 marks)
Hint
Mutual exclusion.
Answer
Separation is understood as mutual exclusion: the state does not intervene in religion and religion does not interfere in the state; no policy may have an exclusively religious rationale; the state cannot aid or hinder religious institutions; religion is private; rights are individualistic with little room for minority rights, and no state-supported religious reform is allowed.
Q4 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
How did Ataturk's approach to secularism in Turkey differ from the American model? (3 marks)
Hint
Active suppression.
Answer
Ataturk pursued active intervention and suppression of religion: he ended the Khalifa institution, banned the fez by the Hat Law, encouraged western dress, adopted the Gregorian calendar and in 1928 a Latin-based alphabet, unlike the American model of mutual exclusion in which the state neither aids nor interferes with religion.
Q5 · 4 marks · Short answerHOTS / competency
A student argues "since education and individual goodwill can reduce prejudice, the state need not worry about religious domination". Evaluate using the chapter's reasoning about the power of the state. (4 marks)
Hint
State power.
Answer
Education and individual acts of goodwill, like Hindus and Muslims saving each other in riots, help reduce prejudice but cannot end discrimination alone. The state has enormous power, so its conduct is crucial: it must not be theocratic or establish a religion, and must be committed to peace, freedom and equality within and between religions.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1.What is a theocracy?Show answer
A state run by heads of a religion.
2.What did Ataturk ban by the Hat Law?Show answer
The fez.
3.Which model is mutual exclusion?Show answer
The western (American) model.
4.Is secularism anti-religious?Show answer
No.

What Is Secularism? Inter- and Intra-Religious Domination, the Secular State and the Western Model: frequently asked questions

What is an established religion?

One with a formal legal alliance with the state.

Why did the west focus on intra-religious domination?

Its societies were largely religiously homogeneous.

Is separation of state and religion enough?

No; it is necessary but not sufficient.