CBSE Class 10 · The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

The Making of Nationalism: Liberalism and Conservatism

Updated 14 October 2026 · Fact-checked

In early nineteenth-century Europe, the educated liberal middle classes linked national unity to liberalism: individual freedom, equality before the law, government by consent and free markets, as in the German zollverein of 1834. After Napoleon's defeat, conservatives restored monarchies at Vienna in 1815 and imposed censorship, driving revolutionaries such as Mazzini underground.

Understand Making of Nationalism: Liberalism and Conservatism

A Europe without nation-states. In the mid-eighteenth century there were no nation-states as we know them. Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons. The Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) was a patchwork of peoples speaking German, Italian, Magyar, Polish and many peasant languages; the only tie was allegiance to the emperor.

Aristocracy and the new middle class. A small landed aristocracy dominated society: it owned estates and town-houses, spoke French in high society and was linked by marriage across regions. Most people were peasants. Industrialisation, which began in England in the second half of the eighteenth century and reached France and parts of the German states in the nineteenth, created new groups: a working class and middle classes of industrialists, businessmen and professionals. Ideas of national unity, after the end of aristocratic privilege, spread mainly among the educated, liberal middle classes.

What liberal nationalism stood for. 'Liberalism' comes from the Latin *liber*, free.

Politically: freedom of the individual, equality before the law, government by consent, an end to autocracy and clerical privilege, a constitution and representative government through parliament, and the inviolability of private property.
Limits: equality before the law did not mean universal suffrage. In revolutionary France only property-owning men could vote; the Napoleonic Code reduced women to the status of minors. Women and non-propertied men later organised to demand equal political rights.
Economically: freedom of markets and the end of state restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. In the German confederation of 39 states, each with its own currency and weights and measures, a merchant going from Hamburg to Nuremberg in 1833 crossed 11 customs barriers, paying about 5 per cent duty at each. In 1834 a customs union, the zollverein, formed at Prussia's initiative, abolished tariff barriers and cut currencies from over thirty to two. Railways added mobility, and this economic nationalism strengthened wider national feeling.

Conservatism after 1815. Conservatives wanted to preserve established institutions: monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family. They did not want to go back fully to pre-revolutionary days; they saw that modernisation (a modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy, end of serfdom) could make monarchies stronger. In 1815 Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria met at Vienna, hosted by Austrian Chancellor Metternich. The Treaty of Vienna undid Napoleonic changes: the Bourbon dynasty was restored in France; France lost its annexed territories; states such as the kingdom of the Netherlands (with Belgium) were set up on France's borders, and Genoa was added to Piedmont; Prussia gained western territories; Austria got northern Italy; Russia got part of Poland. The German confederation of 39 states was left untouched. The new autocratic regimes imposed censorship on newspapers, books, plays and songs.

Revolutionaries. Fear of repression drove liberal-nationalists underground into secret societies. Giuseppe Mazzini, born in Genoa in 1805 and a member of the Carbonari, was exiled in 1831; he founded Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne. He believed nations were the natural units of mankind, so Italy had to become a single unified republic. Metternich called him 'the most dangerous enemy of our social order'.

Making of Nationalism: Liberalism and Conservatism: key facts

Liberalism: from Latin liber (free): individual freedom, equality before law, government by consent, constitution, parliament, private property, free markets; Did not mean universal suffrage.
1834 zollverein: Prussian-led customs union: tariff barriers abolished; currencies reduced from over thirty to two; Economic nationalism.
1815 Treaty of Vienna: Bourbons restored; buffer states round France; Austria gets northern Italy; Prussia gains west; Russia part of Poland; Hosted by Metternich; German confederation of 39 states untouched.
Conservatism: preserve monarchy, Church, hierarchy, property, family; use modernisation to strengthen monarchy; Regimes after 1815 were autocratic and imposed censorship.
Mazzini: Carbonari member; Young Italy (Marseilles), Young Europe (Berne); a united Italian republic; 'The most dangerous enemy of our social order' (Metternich).

How to answer Making of Nationalism: Liberalism and Conservatism questions

Questions here ask you to explain ideas (liberalism, conservatism) or events (Vienna, zollverein). Use this plan.

1Define the idea in one line with its root or core belief.
2Split liberalism into political, social and economic ideas when asked 'what did liberals stand for'.
3For the Treaty of Vienna, give the aim (undo Napoleon's changes, restore monarchies) and three or four specific decisions.
4For economic nationalism, use the merchant example (11 customs barriers) and the zollverein's effects.
5For revolutionaries, name Mazzini, his societies and his aim of a unified Italian republic.
6Close by linking to the theme: these tensions led to the revolutions of 1830-1848.

Making of Nationalism: Liberalism and Conservatism in real life

The idea, met in an everyday situation. Answer the question in your own words, then compare with the model answer. The one-line hook is what to remember.

Economic nationalism and the zollverein

Suppose a cloth merchant in the 1830s German lands must cross 11 customs posts between two cities, paying about 5 per cent duty at each, and measuring cloth in an 'elle' that is a different length in every state.

Explain why such merchants supported a customs union, what the zollverein changed, and how this helped the cause of national unity.

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Each customs post added duty and delay; different weights, measures and currencies made trade slow and confusing.
Merchants wanted a unified economic territory where goods, people and capital could move freely.
The zollverein of 1834, formed at Prussia's initiative and joined by most German states, removed tariff barriers and brought the number of currencies down from more than thirty to two; railways improved mobility.
Shared economic interests made people think of a single German economy, and this economic nationalism strengthened the wider wish for a German nation.

Answer: Merchants backed a customs union to remove costly barriers; the zollverein abolished tariffs and cut currencies to two, and the resulting economic unity strengthened national feeling.

Memory hook: Fewer customs posts, one market, one nation in the making.

Tricks to remember Making of Nationalism: Liberalism and Conservatism

Short memory aids. Say each one aloud once, then use it on a question the same day.

Liberal = LIBER = Free
Free person, free vote (for some), free market.
Use it when: Defining liberalism.
Vienna's B-R-A-P
Bourbons back, Rim states round France, Austria gets north Italy, Prussia and Russia gain land.
Use it when: Treaty of Vienna decisions.
Mazzini's M-Y-Y
Member of Carbonari, Young Italy, Young Europe.
Use it when: Mazzini's organisations.

Making of Nationalism: Liberalism and Conservatism: solved examples

Ordered from board level to HOTS. Try each one before you open the solution.

Example 1: Zollverein · 1 mark · MCQBoard level

The zollverein was formed in 1834 at the initiative of:
(a) Austria (b) France (c) Prussia (d) Russia

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Recall: the customs union was a Prussian initiative joined by most German states.

Answer: (c) Prussia.

Example 2: Liberal ideas · 5 marks · Long answerHarder board level

What did liberal nationalism stand for? Explain its political and economic ideas, and one limitation. (5 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Liberalism (from Latin liber, free) meant freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law (1 mark).
Politically it stood for government by consent, an end to autocracy and clerical privileges, and a constitution with representative government through parliament (1 mark).
It stressed the inviolability of private property (1 mark).
Economically it stood for freedom of markets and the abolition of state restrictions on the movement of goods and capital, as in the zollverein (1 mark).
Limitation: equality before law did not mean universal suffrage; only property-owning men could vote, and women and non-propertied men were excluded (1 mark).

Answer: Individual freedom, equality before law, government by consent, constitution and parliament, private property and free markets; but no universal suffrage.

Example 3: Treaty of Vienna · 3 marks · Short answerBoard level

Describe the main decisions of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815. What was its main intention? (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

The Bourbon dynasty was restored and France lost the territories annexed under Napoleon (1 mark).
States were set up on France's boundaries (kingdom of the Netherlands with Belgium; Genoa added to Piedmont); Prussia gained western territories, Austria got northern Italy and Russia part of Poland (1 mark).
The intention was to undo Napoleonic changes, restore overthrown monarchies and create a conservative order (1 mark).

Answer: Bourbons restored, buffer states around France, territorial gains for Prussia, Austria and Russia; aim: restore monarchies and a conservative order.

Example 4: Conservatism and modernisation · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level

'Most conservatives did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days.' Explain this statement. (3 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

Conservatives wanted to preserve traditional institutions such as the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family (1 mark).
But they had seen from Napoleon's changes that modernisation could strengthen these institutions (1 mark).
A modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy and the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could make autocratic monarchies stronger, so they accepted such changes (1 mark).

Answer: They kept traditional institutions but used modernisation to make monarchies stronger.

Example 5: Source: Friedrich List · 4 marks · Source-basedHOTS / competency

Read the summary of a source and answer.

In 1834 the economist Friedrich List argued that the customs union would tie the Germans together economically as one nation. It would make the nation materially stronger by guarding its interests abroad and boosting production at home, and it should stir national feeling by merging the interests of individuals and provinces.

(a) Who was Friedrich List? (1 mark)
(b) What economic aim of the zollverein does List mention? (1 mark)
(c) What political end does List hope to achieve through economic measures? Explain with reference to the German confederation. (2 marks)

Try it first, then show the solutionSolution

(a) A Professor of Economics at the University of Tübingen in Germany (1 mark).
(b) To bind Germans economically: protect their interests externally and stimulate internal productivity (1 mark).
(c) He hopes economic union will awaken national sentiment by fusing individual and provincial interests, turning the 39 separate German states, each with its own currency and measures, into one nation (2 marks).

Answer: (a) Professor of Economics, Tübingen. (b) Economic unity, protection and productivity. (c) National unity of the German states through shared economic interests.

Where students lose marks in Making of Nationalism: Liberalism and Conservatism

The slips examiners see most often, and what to write instead.

Mistake: Saying liberals gave votes to everyone
Liberalism sounds fully democratic.
Wrong working
Liberals introduced universal adult franchise.
Right working
Equality before law did not mean universal suffrage; votes went to property-owning men.
Do this: Always add the limitation.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Wrong host or year for Vienna
Names of statesmen get mixed.
Wrong working
Bismarck hosted the Congress of Vienna in 1871.
Right working
Metternich hosted it in 1815.
Do this: Pair: Vienna–1815–Metternich.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Treating conservatives as anti-change in every way
The word suggests resisting all change.
Wrong working
Conservatives wanted to bring back feudalism and serfdom.
Right working
They accepted modernisation (army, bureaucracy, end of serfdom) to strengthen monarchy.
Do this: Remember: preserve institutions, modernise the state.
Usually costs: 1 mark.
Mistake: Vague economic answer
Students write 'trade was difficult'.
Wrong working
There were problems in trade.
Right working
39 states with separate currencies and measures; 11 customs barriers between Hamburg and Nuremberg.
Do this: Use the NCERT example with numbers.
Usually costs: ½ to 1 mark.

Exam tips

Divide 'what did liberals stand for' answers into political, social and economic ideas.
Use dates as anchors: 1815 (Vienna), 1834 (zollverein).
Name Metternich and Mazzini correctly; both are favourites in MCQs and short notes.
For source questions, explain the symbol first, then link it to the historical context.
Keep 3-mark answers near 60 words and 5-mark answers near 120 words.

Practice questions on Making of Nationalism: Liberalism and Conservatism

Write each answer on paper first. Open the hint only if you are stuck, and the answer only when you have finished.

Q1 · 1 mark · MCQBoard level
The Congress of Vienna (1815) was hosted by:
(a) Bismarck (b) Metternich (c) Cavour (d) Mazzini
Hint
The Austrian Chancellor.
Answer
(b) Metternich.
Q2 · 1 mark · Assertion-reasonHarder board level
Assertion (A): Liberals of the early nineteenth century demanded equality before the law.
Reason (R): They granted the right to vote to all adult men and women.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
Hint
Did equality before the law mean universal suffrage?
Answer
(c). Voting was limited to property-owning men; women and non-propertied men were excluded.
Q3 · 2 marks · Very short answerBoard level
Who was Giuseppe Mazzini? Mention two organisations he founded and his aim. (2 marks)
Hint
Genoa, Carbonari, Marseilles, Berne.
Answer
An Italian revolutionary born in Genoa in 1805 and a member of the Carbonari. He founded Young Italy (Marseilles) and Young Europe (Berne), aiming to unite Italy as a single republic.
Q4 · 3 marks · Short answerHarder board level
Why did the commercial classes of the German states see the existing system as an obstacle to growth? How did the zollverein address this? (3 marks)
Hint
Customs barriers, currencies, measures like the elle.
Answer
The confederation's 39 states each had their own currency and weights and measures; a merchant from Hamburg to Nuremberg crossed 11 customs barriers, paying about 5 per cent at each, and units like the elle varied in length, causing delay and cost. The zollverein (1834) abolished tariff barriers and reduced currencies from over thirty to two, creating a unified economic territory; railways improved mobility.
Q5 · 5 marks · Long answerHOTS / competency
Compare the views of liberals and conservatives in early nineteenth-century Europe on (a) monarchy, (b) political rights and (c) freedom of the press. Why did their conflict lead to revolutionary activity after 1815? (5 marks)
Hint
Vienna restored autocracy; liberals went underground.
Answer
(a) Liberals wanted an end to autocracy and a constitution with parliament; conservatives wanted to preserve monarchy, though modernised. (b) Liberals demanded equality before the law and government by consent (though suffrage was limited); conservative regimes were autocratic and did not tolerate dissent. (c) Liberals made freedom of the press a major issue; conservative regimes imposed censorship on newspapers, books, plays and songs. After 1815 the Vienna settlement restored monarchies and repression, so many liberal-nationalists went underground into secret societies, such as Mazzini's Young Italy, to oppose the monarchies and fight for liberty and nation-states, leading towards the revolutions of 1830-1848.
Q6 · 4 marks · Source-basedHOTS / competency
Read the source and answer.
Look at 'The Club of Thinkers', the anonymous caricature of about 1820 in your NCERT chapter (Fig. 6). Its members sit with muzzles over their mouths, and a notice on the wall wonders how much longer they will be permitted to think.
(a) What does the muzzle symbolise? (1 mark)
(b) Which kind of regime is the artist criticising? (1 mark)
(c) Explain how such regimes tried to control ideas, and why liberals opposed them. (2 marks)
Hint
Think of censorship after 1815.
Answer
(a) Suppression of free speech and thought. (b) The conservative, autocratic regimes set up after 1815. (c) They used censorship laws to control the content of newspapers, books, plays and songs that reflected ideas of liberty; liberals, inspired by the French Revolution, saw freedom of the press as essential to liberty and opposed such control.

Test your recall

Answer in your head or on paper first, then open the card. Pulling an answer out of memory makes it stick far better than re-reading.

1.Latin root of 'liberalism'?Show answer
Liber, meaning free.
2.Number of states in the German confederation?Show answer
39.
3.Year of the zollverein?Show answer
1834.
4.Which dynasty was restored in France in 1815?Show answer
The Bourbon dynasty.
5.Who got control of northern Italy at Vienna?Show answer
Austria.
6.Two societies founded by Mazzini?Show answer
Young Italy and Young Europe.

Making of Nationalism: Liberalism and Conservatism: frequently asked questions

What is liberal nationalism?

The early nineteenth-century idea, held by educated middle classes, that national unity should go with individual freedom, equality before law, government by consent, a constitution and free markets.

What was the zollverein?

A customs union formed in 1834 at Prussia's initiative and joined by most German states; it abolished tariff barriers and reduced currencies from over thirty to two.

What was the aim of the Treaty of Vienna, 1815?

To undo the changes of the Napoleonic wars, restore the monarchies Napoleon had overthrown and create a conservative order in Europe.

What did conservatives believe?

That traditional institutions like monarchy, the Church, hierarchy, property and family should be preserved, though modernisation could make monarchies stronger.

Why did Metternich fear Mazzini?

Mazzini's relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics threatened the conservative order; Metternich called him the most dangerous enemy of the social order.